Prebiotic formulations and methods of use

ABSTRACT

The invention provides methods and pharmaceutical compositions for treating symptoms associated with lactose intolerance and for overall improvement in gastrointestinal health. Described herein are methods and pharmaceutical compositions for improving overall gastrointestinal health or for decreasing symptoms of lactose intolerance by administering to subject in need thereof a pharmaceutical composition comprising a prebiotic, optionally in combination with effective amount of a probiotic microbe or microbes.

CROSS-REFERENCE

This application is a continuation-in-part application of Ser. No.12/707,037, filed Feb. 17, 2010, which claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application Nos. 61/155,150, filed Feb. 24, 2009, and61/272,622, filed Oct. 13, 2009, each of which is incorporated byreference in its entirety and to which application we claim priorityunder 35 USC §120.

This application also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional ApplicationNos. 61/328,991, filed Apr. 28, 2010 and 61/372,836, filed Aug. 11,2010, which are herein incorporated by reference in their entireties.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

According to NIH estimates in 2008, 30-50 million Americans are lactoseintolerant” (the Food and Drug Administration's Consumer HealthInformation on the agency's website). In the 1960s and 1970s, it wasreported that 70% of the adults in the world had lactose intolerance. In1995, it was reported that 75% of the adults in the world and 25% of theadults in the U.S. were categorized as being lactose intolerant. In1994, it was reported that 75% of African Americans and Native Americansand 90% of Asian Americans had lactose intolerance. It has also beenreported that 30% of adults who are mostly North American descendants ofEuropeans have adapted to high lactase activity into adulthood. Researchconcludes that this adaptation is genetically controlled, permanent, andrelated to a long tradition of milk and milk product consumption inthese regions of the world.

Lactose intolerance is the inability to digest significant amounts oflactose, a major natural sugar found in milk and milk products of allmammals. Lactose intolerance is caused by a shortage of the enzymelactase, which is produced by the cells that line the small intestineand is essential to lactose digestion. Lactase breaks down lactose, adisaccharide, into two simpler forms of sugar called glucose andgalactose, which are then transported across the cell membrane andabsorbed into the bloodstream. If lactase is not present, or not presentin sufficient levels, excess undigested lactose passes through the smallintestines into the large intestine where it is fermented by bacteria inthe colon (“colonic microbiota,” “gut microbiota,” “intestinalmicrobiota,” or “commensal gut microbiota”). The fermentation of lactosein the large intestine produces hydrogen and methane which can lead tobloating, gas, and diarrhea. These symptoms are caused by a very lowactivity of lactase in the intestines and are found in subjects who arelactose intolerant. Not all subjects deficient in lactase have thesymptoms commonly associated with lactose intolerance, but those who doare said to have lactose intolerance.

This decrease in lactase activity results in a demonstrated maldigestionof the sugar lactose, either with or without symptoms, after ingestingdairy products such as milk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Lactosemaldigestion, with or without the symptoms commonly associated withlactose intolerance, is often defined more specifically as an “increasein blood glucose concentration of <1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20ppm after ingestion of 1 g/kg body weight or 50 g lactose” (de Vrese etal., 2001).

If a subject suspects that he or she has lactose intolerance, it ispotentially harmful for him or her to restrict his or her diet becauserestriction can result in a nutrition shortage or a failure to detect amore serious disease. Milk and other dairy products are major sourcesfor nutrition in the basic American diet. The primary nutrients in milkare protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, and vitamin D. Calcium isan important part of the recommended daily allowance of vitamins andminerals and any deficiency therein can lead to increased risk ofosteoporosis and hypertension (McCarron and Heaney 2004) and possiblycancer (Barger-Lux and Heaney 1994; Consensus Conference: OptimalCalcium Intakes, NIH 1994).

Young children who have lactose intolerance are very rare. The amount ofthe enzyme lactase a body produces generally reaches a maximumimmediately after birth and then decreases in the majority of peopleduring the ages of about 3-15.

Generally, humans develop lactose intolerance from a primary orsecondary cause. The primary cause is an onset of loss of lactase thatis believed to be a permanent condition. This onset can occur at avariable period after the weaning period. The primary cause is alsogenetically determined. The secondary cause is generally a temporarycondition that occurs as a result of another disease or event thatdamages the lining of the small intestine where lactase is active. Thistemporary condition can be caused by acute diarrhea, disease, parasiticinfection, Cohn's disease, celiac disease, gastrointestinal surgery, orthe intake of certain medications.

In addition to the primary and secondary causes, certain human ethnicand racial populations have more of a predisposition for lactoseintolerance. In these populations, social and cultural habits andattitudes influence lactose intolerance. Lactose activity can alsodecrease with age in certain ethnic and racial populations, includingthose populations which have origins in Europe, the African plains, andthe Siberian Steppes. Humans who are most likely to have or developlactose intolerance include those of Asian, Middle Eastern, NorthAmerican, African, and Latin American decent.

Currently, there is no universally accepted therapy for the treatment oflactose intolerance. As such, most lactose intolerant individuals avoidthe ingestion of milk and dairy products, while others substitutenon-lactose containing products in their diet. The avoidance of lactosemakes the occurrence of symptoms more likely when dairy foods areconsumed.

Nutritional supplements currently sold often offer no proven benefit orin some instances, must be ingested prior to eating dairy, where theoutcome is dependent on the dose of the supplement and relative to theamount of lactose consumed. In some instances, use of a nutritionalsupplement to manage the symptoms associated with lactose intolerancemay require large dosages, such as five or more pills per day.

There is need in the medical community for a tolerable and convenienttreatment that allows for all levels of milk and dairy productconsumption in people suffering from mild to severe lactose intolerance.A treatment that provides a simplified dosing regimen as well as thepotential for extended relief from symptoms following a limited therapyregimen (e.g., ≦30 days) would result in greater compliance and addressan unmet medical need.

“Prebiotics” are non-digestible food ingredients that stimulate thegrowth or activity of bacteria in the digestive system that arebeneficial to the health of the body (Gibson and Roberfroid 1995).Typically, prebiotics are carbohydrates such as oligosaccharides, butthe definition does not preclude non-carbohydrates.

Prebiotics have been further defined as fulfilling three criteria(Gibson et al. 2004):

1) Resistance to gastric acidity, hydrolysis by mammalian enzymes andgastrointestinal absorption;2) Fermentation by intestinal microflora; and3) Selective stimulation of the growth and/or selective activity ofintestinal bacteria associated with health and well-being.

Substantial data exist to support the strategy that colonic bacteriaadapt readily to undigested carbohydrates, resulting in dramaticallyimproved lactose tolerance. A purified GOS preparation, can promote theselective growth of beneficial colonic bacteria, including multiplespecies and strains of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Bifidobacteriacarry out non hydrogen-producing lactose fermentation reactions inaddition to inhibiting hydrogen producing bacteria, such as Escherichiacoli (E. coli). It is this excessive hydrogen production that defineslactose malabsorption and ultimately is responsible for the symptomsassociated with lactose intolerance (Ballongue 1993; Gibson 1994, 1995).A recent study indicates that higher purity GOS formulations have agreater potential to selectively promote the growth of beneficiallactobacilli and bifidobacteria (Klaenhammer 2010).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Disclosed herein are methods of treating lactose intolerance in asubject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerancecomprising administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject,wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment,at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In oneembodiment, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition isGOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 gGOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 gGOS. In one embodiment, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In oneembodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. Inone embodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In oneembodiment, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior toconsumption. In one embodiment, the composition is provided in a dosingunit. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel,ephervescant tablet, or lozenge. In one embodiment, the dosing unitfurther comprises an enteric coating. In one embodiment, the compositionfurther comprises a probiotic. In one embodiment, the probioticcomprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In one embodiment, thecomposition does not contain a probiotic. In one embodiment, thecomposition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days.In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 10 to 40 days. Inone embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 35 days. In oneembodiment, the predetermined number of days is 30 days. In oneembodiment, the predetermined number of days is 14 days. In oneembodiment, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS onthe first day of administration than the last day of administration. Inone embodiment, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on thefirst day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, themethod comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first dayof administration as the last day of administration. In one embodiment,the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In oneembodiment, the method comprises administering the composition twice aday. In one embodiment, the composition is provided without a meal. Inone embodiment, the composition is provided with a meal. In oneembodiment, the subject is a human subject. In one embodiment, thesubject is a pediatric subject. In one embodiment, the subject is anadult. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly person. In oneembodiment, the subject is a post-menopausal woman. In one embodiment,the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach,nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. Inone embodiment, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In oneembodiment, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

Disclosed here are methods of preventing lactose intolerance in asubject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerancecomprising administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject,wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiment,at least about 80% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In oneembodiment, at least about 95% of the total weight of the composition isGOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 gGOS. In one embodiment, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 gGOS. In one embodiment, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In oneembodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. Inone embodiment, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In oneembodiment, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior toconsumption. In one embodiment, the composition is provided in a dosingunit. In one embodiment, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet, softgel,ephervescant tablet, or lozenge. In one embodiment, the dosing unitfurther comprises an enteric coating. In one embodiment, the compositionfurther comprises a probiotic. In one embodiment, the probioticcomprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In one embodiment, thecomposition does not contain a probiotic. In one embodiment, thecomposition is administered each day for a predetermined number of days.In one embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 10 to 40 days. Inone embodiment, the predetermined number of days is 35 days. In oneembodiment, the predetermined number of days is 30 days. In oneembodiment, the predetermined number of days is 14 days. In oneembodiment, the method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS onthe first day of administration than the last day of administration. Inone embodiment, the subject is administered 1.5 grams of GOS on thefirst day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day. In one embodiment, themethod comprises administering the same dosage of GOS on the first dayof administration as the last day of administration. In one embodiment,the method comprises administering the composition once a day. In oneembodiment, the method comprises administering the composition twice aday. In one embodiment, the composition is provided without a meal. Inone embodiment, the composition is provided with a meal. In oneembodiment, the subject is a human subject. In one embodiment, thesubject is a pediatric subject. In one embodiment, the subject is anadult. In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly person. In oneembodiment, the subject is a post-menopausal woman. In one embodiment,the one or more symptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach,nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. Inone embodiment, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In oneembodiment, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

Disclosed herein are methods of treating lactose intolerance in asubject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerancecomprising: administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) to the subject;diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactose intolerance basedupon a HBT result; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition tothe subject diagnosed as having lactose intolerance based upon the HBTresult, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In oneembodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greaterthan about 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase inbreath hydrogen of greater than about 15 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBTresult is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than about 20 ppm.Also disclosed here are methods of treating lactose intolerance in asubject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerancecomprising: administering a lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactoseintolerance based upon a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaireresult; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subjectdiagnosed with lactose intolerance based upon the lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire result, wherein the pharmaceutical compositioncomprises GOS. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe tosevere. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate orhigher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher attwo different timepoints. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire is administered after a lactose or milkchallenge. Also disclosed herein are methods of treating lactoseintolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance comprising: administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) tothe subject; administering a lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire to the subject; diagnosing the subject as having or nothaving lactose intolerance based upon a HBT result and a lactoseintolerance diagnostic questionnaire result; and administering apharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed with lactoseintolerance based upon the HBT result and the lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire result, wherein the pharmaceutical compositioncomprises GOS. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase inbreath hydrogen of greater than 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBTresult is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 15 ppm. In oneembodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greaterthan 20 ppm. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe tosevere. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate orhigher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher attwo different timepoints. In some embodiments, at least about 80% of thetotal weight of the composition is GOS. In some embodiments, at leastabout 95% of the total weight of the composition is GOS. In someembodiments, the composition comprises about 0.1 g to 20 g GOS. In someembodiments, the composition comprises about 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In someembodiments, the composition is a syrup or liquid. In some embodiments,the syrup or liquid is provided in a capsule or softgel. In someembodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in a bottle. In someembodiments, the syrup or liquid is diluted with water prior toconsumption. In some embodiments, the composition is provided in adosing unit. In some embodiments, the dosing unit is a capsule, tablet,softgel, ephervescant tablet, or lozenge. In some embodiments, thedosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. In some embodiments,the composition further comprises a probiotic. In some embodiments, theprobiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In someembodiments, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In someembodiments, the composition is administered each day for apredetermined number of days. In some embodiments, the predeterminednumber of days is 10 to 40 days. In some embodiments, the predeterminednumber of days is 35 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined numberof days is 30 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number ofdays is 14 days. In some embodiments, the method comprises administeringa lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the lastday of administration. In some embodiments, the subject is administered1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day.In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the same dosageof GOS on the first day of administration as the last day ofadministration. In some embodiments, the method comprises administeringthe composition once a day. In some embodiments, the method comprisesadministering the composition twice a day. In some embodiments, thecomposition is provided without a meal. In some embodiments, thecomposition is provided with a meal. In some embodiments, the subject isa human subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a pediatricsubject. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In someembodiments, the subject is an elderly person. In some embodiments, thesubject is a post-menopausal woman. In some embodiments, the one or moresymptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea,bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting. In someembodiments, the subject has a nutritional deficiency. In someembodiments, the nutritional deficiency is a calcium deficiency.

Disclosed herein are methods of treating a subject with a calciumdeficiency, wherein the subject is experiencing one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance, comprising administering a pharmaceuticalcomposition to the subject, wherein the pharmaceutical compositioncomprises GOS. Also disclosed herein are methods of treating a subjectwith a calcium deficiency wherein the subject is experiencing one ormore symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising: administering ahydrogen breath test (HBT) to the subject; diagnosing the subject ashaving or not having lactose intolerance based upon a HBT result; and,administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subject diagnosed ashaving lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result, wherein thepharmaceutical composition comprises GOS. In one embodiments, the methodof treatment further comprising administering a lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire to the subject and diagnosing the subject ashaving or not having lactose intolerance based upon the HBT result and alactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result. Also disclosedherein are methods of treating a subject with a calcium deficiencywherein the subject is experiencing one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance comprising: administering a lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire; diagnosing the subject as having or not having lactoseintolerance based upon a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaireresult; and, administering a pharmaceutical composition to the subjectdiagnosed with lactose intolerance based upon the lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire results, wherein the pharmaceutical compositioncomprises GOS. In one embodiment, the HBT result is an increase inbreath hydrogen of greater than 12 ppm. In one embodiment, the HBTresult is an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 15 ppm. In oneembodiment, the HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen of greaterthan 20 ppm. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderately severe tosevere. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is two or more symptom ratings of moderate orhigher. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerance diagnosticquestionnaire result is a single symptom rating of moderate or higher attwo different timepoints. In one embodiment, the lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire is administered after a lactose or milkchallenge. In some embodiments, the subject has bone loss, osteoporosis,hypertension, weak bone density and/or cardiac arrhythmias. In someembodiments, at least about 80% of the total weight of the compositionis GOS. In some embodiments, at least about 95% of the total weight ofthe composition is GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprisesabout 0.1 g to 20 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition comprisesabout 1.5 g to 15 g GOS. In some embodiments, the composition is a syrupor liquid. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is provided in acapsule or softgel. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is providedin a bottle. In some embodiments, the syrup or liquid is diluted withwater prior to consumption. In some embodiments, the composition isprovided in a dosing unit. In some embodiments, the dosing unit is acapsule, tablet, softgel, ephervescant tablet, or lozenge. In someembodiments, the dosing unit further comprises an enteric coating. Insome embodiments, the composition further comprises a probiotic. In someembodiments, the probiotic comprises Lactobacillus or bifidobacteria. Insome embodiments, the composition does not contain a probiotic. In someembodiments, the composition is administered each day for apredetermined number of days. In some embodiments, the predeterminednumber of days is 10 to 40 days. In some embodiments, the predeterminednumber of days is 35 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined numberof days is 30 days. In some embodiments, the predetermined number ofdays is 14 days. In some embodiments, the method comprises administeringa lower dosage of GOS on the first day of administration than the lastday of administration. In some embodiments, the subject is administered1.5 grams of GOS on the first day and 15 grams of GOS on the final day.In some embodiments, the method comprises administering the same dosageof GOS on the first day of administration as the last day ofadministration. In some embodiments, the method comprises administeringthe composition once a day. In some embodiments, the method comprisesadministering the composition twice a day. In some embodiments, thecomposition is provided without a meal. In some embodiments, thecomposition is provided with a meal. In some embodiments, the subject isa human subject. In some embodiments, the subject is a pediatricsubject. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In someembodiments, the subject is an elderly person. In some embodiments, thesubject is a post-menopausal woman. In some embodiments, the one or moresymptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea,bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting.

Disclosed herein are pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage forms ofGOS comprising one or more dosing units, each of the dosing unitscomprising 0.1 to 2 g of a GOS composition wherein the GOS compositionis a liquid encapsulated in a gelatin capsule. Also disclosed herein arepharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage forms of GOS comprising one ormore dosing units, each of the dosing units comprising 0.1 to 2 g of aGOS composition wherein the GOS composition is a viscous syrup or liquidencapsulated in a gelatin capsule. In some embodiments, the gelatincapsule is size 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5. In some embodiments, theGOS composition comprises at least about 80% GOS by weight. In someembodiments, the GOS composition comprises at least about 95% GOS byweight. In some embodiments, the gelatin capsule further comprises anenteric coating. In some embodiments the, GOS composition furthercomprises a probiotic. In some embodiments, the probiotic comprisesLactobacillus or bifidobacteria. In some embodiments, the GOScomposition does not contain a probiotic.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety tothe same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patentapplication was specifically and individually indicated to beincorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity inthe appended claims. A better understanding of the features andadvantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to thefollowing detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments,in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and theaccompanying drawings of which:

FIG. 1 illustrates the chemical structure of lactulose.

FIG. 2 illustrates the chemical structure of raffinose.

FIG. 3 illustrates the chemical structure of stachyose.

FIG. 4 illustrates the chemical structure of inulin.

FIG. 5 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 70% GOS composition.

FIG. 6 illustrates another treatment regimen with a 70% GOS composition.

FIG. 7 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 90% GOS composition.

FIG. 8 illustrates another treatment regimen with a 93% GOS composition.

FIG. 9 illustrates a treatment regimen with a 95% GOS composition.

FIG. 10 illustrates a non-limiting example of different GOS with a DP of2, 3, and 4.

FIG. 11 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing highpurity GOS.

FIG. 12 illustrates Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM growth on 2% GOS1(95%) or glucose.

FIGS. 13A and 13B illustrate HPLC chromatograms of GOS compositions ofthe present invention before (13A) and after (13B) a purification step.

FIG. 14 illustrates comparative growth of L. acidophilus,Bifidobacterium lactis, Bifidobacterium breve, and Bifidobacteriumlongum on GOS1 (95%).

FIG. 15 illustrates comparative growth of B. longum, Bifidobacteriumpseudolongum, Bifidobacterium animalis, and Bifidobacterium adolescentison glucose and GOS1 (95%).

FIG. 16 illustrates comparative growth of B. pseudolongum NCK20383 onglucose, lactose, GOS1 (95%), and GOS2 (90%).

FIG. 17 illustrates comparative growth of four bifidobacterial strainson glucose, GOS1 (95%), GOS2 (90%), and lactose.

FIG. 18 illustrates growth of 3 Escherichia coli strains in media withno added carbohydrate (control), or 2% added glucose, GOS1 (95% GOS), orGOS2 (90% GOS).

FIG. 19 illustrates a schematic of a high percentage GOS compositionmanufacturing process.

FIG. 20 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containing GOS 95.

FIG. 21 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a blank sample (PVDFfiltered 0.015N H₂ SO₄).

FIG. 22 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containingLactose.

FIG. 23 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containingα-D-Glucose.

FIG. 24 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample containingD-(+)-Galactose.

FIG. 25 illustrates an overview of a Phase II proof-of-concept study.

FIG. 26 illustrates a set of interviewer instructions for apre-screening interview.

FIG. 27 illustrate a study introduction script for a pre-screeninginterview.

FIG. 28 illustrates a lactose intolerance symptom script/guidelines fora pre-screening interview.

FIG. 29 illustrates a lactose intolerance life-style script/guidelinesfor a pre-screening interview.

FIG. 30 illustrates a Lactose Load Symptom Questionnaire for apre-screening interview.

FIG. 31 illustrates a Daily Symptom Diary for use during Placebo Run-inand Treatment studies.

FIG. 32 illustrates a Daily Symptom and Milk Product Diary for useduring the Follow-up studies.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION I. Overview

Described herein are methods, compositions, kits, and business methodsuseful for the reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance in a subjectin need thereof, and for improving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health.Symptoms of lactose intolerance include gas, heartburn, stomach upset,bloating, flatulence, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, nausea, orvomiting. Minor digestive problems related to the GI also includeoccasional bloating, diarrhea, constipation, gas, heartburn, or stomachupset. The methods and compositions described herein are useful forreducing or eliminating one or more of these symptoms, for examplethrough colonic adaptation. Fructose and sorbitol malabsorption are alsocommon when lactose malabsorption is present. The methods andcompositions described herein can also be useful for reducing oreliminating malabsorption of saccharides or carbohydrates such aslactose, fructose, or sorbitol.

In one aspect of the methods described, the reduction or elimination ofsymptoms persists after treatment of a condition has concluded. Thus,the described methods need not be used on a continuous basis but rathercan be utilized for a discrete time period and then discontinued. Inanother aspect of the methods, reduction or elimination of symptoms canbe temporary, and after an amount of time has passed, treatment can beadministered when symptoms reappear to maintain the effects of themethods described herein. In yet another aspect of the methods, themethods described can be administered on a regular basis for reducingsymptoms of lactose intolerance and for improving overallgastrointestinal (GI) health.

In another aspect compositions and methods comprising a prebioticcomposition are provided that are useful for treatment of lactoseintolerance, reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance, and forimproving overall gastrointestinal (GI) health. In one embodiment, aprebiotic composition is a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodimenta prebiotic composition comprises one or more saccharides (herein,interchangeably also referred to as carbohydrates or sugars) which arenon-digestible by a human digestive system. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition consists essentially of a saccharide which isnon-digestible by a human digestive system. In one embodiment, the oneor more saccharides are oligosaccharides wherein the degree ofpolymerization (DP) is from 2 to 20. In one embodiment the degree ofpolymerization can be 2 (e.g., see FIG. 10), 3 (e.g., see FIG. 10), 4(e.g., see FIG. 10), 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,19, or 20. In another embodiment, the one or more saccharides are apolysaccharide wherein the degree of polymerization is greater than 10.In another embodiment, the saccharide comprises a mixture ofnon-digestible oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. In anotherembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises one or more digestiblesaccharides and one or more non-digestible oligosaccharides orpolysaccharides. In one embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide,such as a disaccharide, a trisaccharide, a tetrasaccharide, apentasaccharide, a hexasaccharide, a heptasaccharide, an octasaccharide,a nanasaccharide, or a decasaccharide. Saccharides that are notdigestible by humans include, but are not limited to,transgalactooligosaccharides, galacto-oligosaccharides, lactulose (FIG.1), raffinose (FIG. 2), stachyose (FIG. 3), lactosucrose,fructo-oligosaccharides, isomalto-oligosaccharides,xylo-oligosaccharides, paratinose oligosaccharides, difructose anhydrideIII, sorbitol, maltitol, lactitol, reduced paratinose, cellulose,β-glucose, β-galactose, β-fructose, verbascose, galactinol, andβ-glucan, guar gum, pectin, high sodium alginate, and lambdacarrageenan.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises a saccharide that isinulin (FIG. 4), fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), lactulose,galacto-oligosaccharide (GOS), raffinose, or stachyose. In anotherembodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestibleby a human digestive system, contains at least one beta-glycosidic(e.g., beta galactosidic or beta glucosidic) bond, and would inducelactose digestion when fed to a subject in need thereof. In oneembodiment the subject in need thereof is a human. In another embodimentthe saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestible by a humandigestive system and contains at least one beta-glycosidic (e.g., betagalactosidic or beta glucosidic) bond that can be digested by abacterium. In one embodiment the bacterium is a probiotic. In oneembodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that is non-digestibleby a human digestive system and contains at least one alpha-glycosidicbond. In one embodiment the bacterium is a lactobacilli or abifidobacteria. In one embodiment the saccharide is GOS.

In another embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that isnon-digestible by a human digestive system, contains at least onealpha-glycosidic (e.g., alpha galactosidic or alpha glucosidic) bond,and would induce lactose digestion when fed to a subject in needthereof. In one embodiment the subject in need thereof is a human. Inanother embodiment the saccharide is an oligosaccharide that isnon-digestible by a human digestive system and contains at least onealpha-glycosidic (e.g., alpha galactosidic or alpha glucosidic) bondthat can be metabolized by a bacterium. In one embodiment the bacteriumis a probiotic. In one embodiment the bacterium is a lactobacilli or abifidobacteria. In one embodiment the saccharide is GOS.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises at least onenon-digestible saccharide and optionally contains one or more digestiblesaccharides or oligosaccharides. Digestible saccharides are those whichare digestible by a human digestive system. In one embodiment, the oneor more digestible saccharide is lactose, galactose, or glucose. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition does not contain lactose. Inone embodiment, a prebiotic composition does not contain any probioticbacteria. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains atleast one strain of probiotic bacteria.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition contains an oligosaccharidethat increases β-galactosidase activity in the large intestine. In oneembodiment, a prebiotic composition contains an oligosaccharide thatincreases the amount of probiotic activity in the large intestine.

II. Prebiotics

Prebiotics are non-digestible substances that when consumed provide abeneficial physiological effect on the host by selectively stimulatingthe favorable growth or activity of a limited number of indigenousbacteria (Gibson G R, Roberfroid M B. Dietary modulation of the humancolonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. J Nutr. 1995June; 125(6):1401-12.). A prebiotic is generally a saccharide that isnon-digestible or essentially non-digestible by a human and acts toencourage the growth of probiotic bacteria in the gut, increase adhesionof probiotic bacteria in the gut, displace pathogens, or provide afermentable dose of carbohydrate to probiotic bacteria (symbiotic) orselected commensal bacteria and increase the levels of those microbialpopulations (notably lactobacilli and bifidobacteria) in thegastrointestinal tract. A prebiotic can be a saccharide that isnon-digestible by the human host and can act as a non-digestible fiberin the diet. This non-digestibility is because humans lack the enzymesto break down some or all of the prebiotic oligosaccharide as it travelsthrough the digestive tract. When a prebiotic reaches the smallintestine and colon, bacteria encoding an enzyme or enzymes capable ofdigesting the prebiotic can break down the prebiotic into simple sugarsthat the bacteria can use. For example, bifidobacteria and lactobacillihave been reported to digest prebiotic saccharides.

Suitable prebiotics can include one or more of a carbohydrate,carbohydrate monomer, carbohydrate oligomer, or carbohydrate polymer. Inone embodiment, the prebiotics are non-non-digestible saccharides, whichinclude non-non-digestible monosaccharides, non-digestibleoligosaccharides, or non-non-digestible polysaccharides. In oneembodiment, the sugar units of an oligosaccharide or polysaccharide canbe linked in a single straight chain or can be a chain with one or moreside branches. The length of the oligosaccharide or polysaccharide canvary from source to source. In one embodiment, small amounts of glucosecan also be contained in the chain. In another embodiment, the prebioticcomposition can be partially hydrolyzed or contain individual sugarmoieties that are components of the primary oligosaccharide.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition described herein consistsessentially of one or more non-digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment, a prebiotic composition consists essentially of one or morenon-digestible oligosaccharides. In one embodiment, the non-digestibleoligosaccharides are GOS. In other embodiments, a composition describedherein consists essentially of non-digestible GOS and does not contain aprobiotic microbe, or microbes.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition of the invention allows thecolonic microbiota, comprising microorganisms known to increase theability of a subject to tolerate fermentable carbohydrates, to beregularly maintained or replenished through consumption of the prebioticcomposition. In one embodiment, adaptation of the intestinal and colonicmicrobiota increases the intestine and colon's capacity to use lactosewithout producing gas. Adaptive changes in microbiota of thegastrointestinal tract can be useful for the reduction of bloating,diarrhea, gastric distention, pain, or flatulence from the consumptionof dairy products and other lactose containing compositions. In oneembodiment, tolerance of a human subject to dairy products, in general,can be improved through regular consumption of a prebiotic composition.

Prebiotics can promote colonic bacteria that slow fermentation. Forexample, FOS, neosugar, or inulin promotes the growth of acid-formingbacteria in the colon such as bacteria belonging to the generaLactobacillus or Bifidobacterium. For instance, Lactobacillusacidophilus and Bifido bacterium bifidus can play a role in reducing thenumber of pathogenic bacteria in the colon. Additional properties, suchas the effect of prebiotics on colonic pH and stool bulking provide fortheir classification as dietary fibers. In experimental models,prebiotics can improve the bioavailability of essential minerals. As afiber, prebiotics are thought to slow digestion. Other polymers, such asvarious galactans and carbohydrate based gums, such as psyllium, guar,carrageen, gellan, and konjac, are also known to improvegastrointestinal (GI) health. The carbohydrate lactulose can alsoimprove GI health.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises one or more of GOS,lactulose, raffinose, stachyose, lactosucrose, FOS (i.e. oligofructoseor oligofructan), inulin, isomalto-oligosaccharide,xylo-oligosaccharide, paratinose oligosaccharide, transgalactosylatedoligosaccharides (i.e. transgalacto-oligosaccharides),transgalactosylate disaccharides, soybean oligosaccharides (i.e.soyoligosaccharides), gentiooligosaccharides, glucooligosaccharides,pecticoligosaccharides, palatinose polycondensates, difructose anhydrideIII, sorbitol, maltitol, lactitol, polyols, polydextrose, reducedparatinose, cellulose, β-glucose, β-galactose, β-fructose, verbascose,galactinol, and β-glucan, guar gum, pectin, high, sodium alginate, andlambda carrageenan, or mixtures thereof.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a mixture of one ormore non-digestible oligosaccharides, non-digestible polysaccharides,free monosaccharides, non-digestible saccharides, starch, or non-starchpolysaccharides. In one embodiment, a prebiotic component of a prebioticcomposition is a GOS composition. In one embodiment, a prebioticcomposition is a pharmaceutical composition. In one embodiment, apharmaceutical composition is a GOS composition.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition reduces or eliminates one ormore symptoms associated with lactose intolerance or with lactosedigestive problems, including but not limited to cramps, flatulence,stomach pain, vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, nausea, gastric distentionand intestinal pain, in a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment thesubject is a patient. In another embodiment the subject is a human. Inanother embodiment the subject is a non-human animal.

The term “about” means the referenced numeric indication plus or minus10% of that referenced numeric indication.

The term “percent by weight,” as used in reference to the percent byweight of a component in a composition, means the percentage of thecomponent's weight in comparison to the total dry weight of thecomposition.

A. Oligosaccharide Structure

Oligosaccharides are generally considered to have a reducing end and anon-reducing end, whether or not the saccharide at the reducing end isin fact a reducing sugar. In accordance with accepted nomenclature, mostoligosaccharides are depicted herein with the non-reducing end on theleft and the reducing end on the right. Most oligosaccharides describedherein are described with the name or abbreviation for the non-reducingsaccharide (e.g., Gal or D-Gal), preceded or followed by theconfiguration of the glycosidic bond (α or β), the ring bond, the ringposition of the reducing saccharide involved in the bond, and then thename or abbreviation of the reducing saccharide (e.g., Glc or D-Glc).The linkage (e.g., glycosidic linkage, galactosidic linkage, glucosidiclinkage) between two sugar units can be expressed, for example, as 1,4,1-->4, or (1-4) Each saccharide is in the cyclic form (i.e. pyranose orfuranose form). For example, lactose is a disaccharide composed ofcyclic forms of galactose and glucose joined by a beta (1-4) linkagewhere the acetal oxygen bridge is in the beta orientation. Lactoseexists as alpha- and beta-lactose (see structures below). β-lactose canbe expressed as β-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-4)β-D-glucopyranose,β-D-Gal-(1-4)β-D-Glc or as Gal β(1-4)-Glc. α-lactose can be expressed asβ-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-4) α-D-glucopyranose, β-D-Gal-(1-4)-α-D-Glc oras Gal β(1-4)-Glc.

Both FOS and GOS are non-digestible saccharides. β glycosidic linkagesof saccharides, such as those found in, but not limited to, FOS and GOS,make these prebiotics mainly non-digestible and unabsorbable in thestomach and small intestine (see below). Also, α-linked GOS (α-GOS) isnot hydrolyzed by human salivary amylase, but can be used byBifidobacterium bifidum and Clostridium butyricum (Yamashita A. et al.(2004) J. Appl. Glycosci. 51:115-122). FOS and GOS can pass through thesmall intestine and into the large intestine (colon) mostly intact,except where probiotic and commensal microbes are able to metabolize theoligosaccharides.

B. GOS

1. Introduction

GOS (also known as galacto-oligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides,trans-oligosaccharide (TOS), trans-galacto-oligosaccharide (TGOS), andtrans-galactooligosaccharide) are oligomers or polymers of galactosemolecules ending mainly with a glucose or sometimes ending with agalactose molecule and have varying degree of polymerization (generallythe DP is between 2-20) and type of linkages. In one embodiment, GOScomprises galactose and glucose molecules. In another embodiment, GOScomprises only galactose molecules. In a further embodiment, GOS aregalactose-containing oligosaccharides of the form of[β-D-Gal-(1-6)]_(n)-β-D-Gal-(1-4)-D-Glc wherein n is 2-20. In anotherembodiment, GOS are galactose-containing oligosaccharides of the formGlc α1-4-[β-D-Gal-(1-6)-]_(n) where n=2-20. In another embodiment, GOSare in the form of α-D-Glc (1-4)-[β-D-Gal-(1-6)]_(n) where n=2-20. Galis a galactopyranose unit and Glc (or Glu) is a glucopyranose unit.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS-relatedcompound. A GOS-related compound can have the following properties: a) a“lactose” moiety; e.g., GOS with a gal-glu moiety and any polymerizationvalue or type of linkage; or b) be stimulatory to “lactose fermenting”microbes in the human GI tract; for example, raffinose (gal-fru-glu) isa “related” GOS compound that is stimulatory to both lactobacilli andbifidobacteria.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS with a lowdegree of polymerization. In one embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS with a low degree of polymerization increases growth ofprobiotic and select commensal bacteria to a greater extent than anequivalent amount of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS with a highdegree of polymerization. In one embodiment, a prebiotic compositioncomprising a high percentage of GOS with a low degree of polymerizationincreases growth of probiotic and beneficial commensal bacteria to agreater extent than an equivalent amount of a prebiotic compositioncomprising a low percentage of GOS with a low degree of polymerization.In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS with a degree ofpolymerization less than 20, such as less than 10, less than 9, lessthan 8, less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, or less than3. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS with alow degree of polymerization increases growth of probiotic and/orbeneficial commensal microbes in the GI tract of a subject.

2. GOS Synthesis

GOS is found in human and bovine maternal milk. GOS can be produced fromlactose syrup using the transgalactosylase activity of the enzyme(3-galactosidase (Crittenden, (1999) Probiotics: A Critical Review.Tannock, G. (ed) Horizon Scientific Press, Wymondham, pp. 141-156).β-D-galactosidase is known to catalyze not only the hydrolysis of theβ-D-galactoside linkage of lactose to give D-glucose and D-galactose butalso to carry out transgalactosylation reactions where the D-galactosylgroup of a β-D-galactoside is transferred onto a hydroxylated acceptor.For example, when a β-D-galactoside such as lactose or anothercarbohydrate is present, it is possible to obtain new glycoside linkagesbetween the D-galactose unit and the acceptor. The starting galactosidesuch as lactose can also be present in a GOS mixture following thetransgalactosylation reactions. As used herein, GOS comprises one ormore saccharides that have been produced from a glycoside and thetransgalactosylation reaction of a β-galactosidase. Thus, GOS includessaccharides such as transgalactosylated oligosaccharides (i.e.transgalacto-oligosaccharides) or transgalactosylate disaccharides. TheDP of the formed oligosaccharide can vary, typically from 2-20,depending on the enzyme source. In one embodiment, a GOS composition isa blend of one more saccharides with a DP range of 2-6 (i.e. di- throughhexasaccharides). In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend ofone or more saccharides with a DP range of 2-8 (i.e. di- throughoctasaccharides). In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend ofone or more saccharides with a DP range of greater than 8. In yetanother embodiment, a GOS composition is a blend of one or moresaccharides with a DP range of 9-15. In another embodiment, a GOScomposition is a blend of one or more saccharides with a DP of 1, a DPrange of 2-6, a DP range of 6-8, and DP range of greater than 8.

3. GOS Linkages

Linkages between the individual sugar units found in GOS includeβ-(1-6), β-(1-4), β-(1-3) and β-(1-2) linkages. β-(1-3) linkages areless common than β-(1-6) or β-(1-4) linkages. In one embodiment, GOScomprises a number of β-(1-6) linked or β-(1-4) galactopyranosyl unitslinked to a terminal glucopyranosyl residue through an α-(1-4)glycosidic bond. In another embodiment, GOS comprises a number ofβ-(1-6) linked or β-(1-4) galactopyranosyl units linked to a terminalglucopyranosyl residue through a β-(1-4) glycosidic bond. In anotherembodiment, GOS formed by transgalactosylation compriseβ-D-galactopyranosyl-(1-3) linkages. In one embodiment, GOS are branchedsaccharides. Branched oligosaccharides can be formed as an artifact ofthe transgalactosylation reaction. In another embodiment, GOS are linearsaccharides. Non-limiting GOS examples include the following shownbelow:

The source of the β-galactosidase can determine the GOS end productsfrom transgalactosylation reactions. For example, β-galactosidase fromStreptococcus thermophilus can produce a collection oftransgalactosylated disaccharides including Galβ (1-6) Glc, Galβ (1-3)Glc, Galβ (1-2) Glc, and Galβ (1-6) Gal (Matsumoto et al., (1992),Chapter 5: Galactooligosaccharides, in Japanese Technology Reviews, ed.by Karbe, I., Gordon and Breach, NY, pp. 90-160). Transgalactosylatedoligosaccharides (TOS) can be produced using β-galactosidase fromAspergillus oryzae (Tanaka et al, (1983) Bifidobacteria Microflora, 2,17-24), and consists of tri-, tetra-, penta- and hexa-GOS. In anotherembodiment GOS are prepared using β-galactosidase from A. oryzae andStreptococcus thermophilus (Ito et al., (1990), Microbial Ecology inHealth and Disease, 3, 285-292) and contains 36% tri-, tetra-, penta-and hexa-GOS, 16% disaccharides galactosyl-glucose andgalactosyl-galactose, 38% monosaccharides, and 10% lactose.

In one embodiment a strain of Bifidobacterium bifidum (for example,accession number NCIMB 41171) produces a galactosidase activity thatconverts lactose to a GOS mixture comprising the disaccharide Gal α(1-6) Gal, at least one trisaccharide selected from Gal β (1-6)-Gal β(1-4)-Glc and Gal β (1-3)-Gal β (1-4)-Glc, the tetrasaccharide Gal β(1-6)-Gal β (1-6)-Gal β (1-4)-Glc and the pentasaccharide Gal β(1-6)-Gal β (1-6)-Gal β (1-6)-Gal β (1-4)-Glc. In one embodiment, a GOScomposition is a mixture of 10 to 45% w/v of the disaccharide, 10 to 45%w/v of the trisaccharide, 10 to 45% w/v of the tetrasaccharide and 10 to45% w/v of the pentasaccharide.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture ofoligosaccharides comprising 20-28% by weight of β (1-3) linkages, 20-25%by weight of β (1-4) linkages, and 45-55% by weight of β (1-6) linkages.In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharidescomprising 26% by weight of β (1-3) linkages, 23% by weight of β (1-4)linkages, and 51% by weight of β (1-6) linkages.

Alpha-GOS (also called alpha-bond GOS or alpha-linked GOS) areoligosaccharides having an alpha-galactopyranosyl group. Alpha-GOScomprises at least one alpha glycosidic linkage between the saccharideunits. Alpha-GOS are generally represented by α-(Gal)_(n) (n usuallyrepresents an integer of 2 to 10) or α-(Gal)_(n) Glc (n usuallyrepresents an integer of 1 to 9). Examples include a mixture ofα-galactosylglucose, α-galactobiose, α-galactotriose, α-galactotetraose,and higher oligosaccharides. Additional non-limiting examples includemelibiose, manninootriose, raffinose, stachyose, and the like, which canbe produced from beat, soybean oligosaccharide, and the like.

Commercially available and enzyme synthesized alpha-GOS products arealso useful for the compositions described herein. Synthesis ofalpha-GOS with an enzyme is conducted utilizing the dehydrationcondensation reaction of α-galactosidase with the use of galactose,galactose-containing substance, or glucose as a substrate. Thegalactose-containing substance includes hydrolysates ofgalactose-containing substances, for example, a mixture of galactose andglucose obtained by allowing beta-galactosidase to act on lactose, andthe like. Glucose can be mixed separately with galactose and be used asa substrate with α-galactosidase (see e.g., WO 02/18614). Methods ofpreparing alpha-GOS have been described (see e.g., EP1514551 andEP2027863).

In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a mixture of saccharidesthat are alpha-GOS and saccharides that are produced bytransgalactosylation using β-galactosidase. In another embodiment, GOScomprises alpha-GOS. In another embodiment, alpha-GOS comprises α-(Gal)₂from 10% to 100% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS comprises onlysaccharides that are produced by transgalactosylation usingβ-galactosidase.

In one embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise GOS with alphalinkages and beta linkages.

4. GOS Saccharide Unit Composition

In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharidescomprising 1-20% by weight of di-saccharides, 1-20% by weighttri-saccharides, 1-20% by weight tetra-saccharide, and 1-20% by weightpenta-saccharides. In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixtureof oligosaccharides consisting essentially of 1-20% by weight ofdi-saccharides, 1-20% by weight tri-saccharides, 1-20% by weighttetra-saccharide, and 1-20% by weight penta-saccharides. In oneembodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharidescomprising 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 1-3, 1-20% byweight of saccharides with DP of 4-6, 1-20% by weight of saccharideswith DP of 7-9, and 1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 10-12,1-20% by weight of saccharides with DP of 13-15.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a 1:1:1:1:1 ratio ofsaccharides with a DP of 2:3:4:5:6. In one embodiment, a GOS compositionis a 1:2:3:2:1:1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 1:2:3:4:5:6. Inanother embodiment, a GOS composition is a (12 to 13):(4 to 5):1 ratioof saccharides with a DP of 3:4:5. In one embodiment, a GOS compositionis a 12.3:4.8:1 ratio of saccharides with a DP of 3:4:5. In oneembodiment, a GOS composition is a (8-10):(10-15):(4-6):(1-3) ratio ofsaccharides with a DP of 2:3:4:5.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture ofoligosaccharides comprising 50-55% by weight of di-saccharides, 20-30%by weight tri-saccharides, 10-20% by weight tetra-saccharide, and 1-10%by weight penta-saccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition is amixture of oligosaccharides comprising 52% by weight of di-saccharides,26% by weight tri-saccharides, 14% by weight tetra-saccharide, and 5% byweight penta-saccharides.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture ofoligosaccharides comprising 45-55% by weight tri-saccharides, 15-25% byweight tetra-saccharides, 1-10% by weight penta-saccharides. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharidescomprising 49.3% by weight tri-saccharides, 19% by weighttetra-saccharides, 4% by weight penta-saccharides.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture ofoligosaccharides comprising 2-5% by weight of a mixture of tri- tohexa-saccharides, 25-35% by weight Galβ (1-6) Glc, 5-15% by weight Galβ(1-3) Glc, 5-15% by weight Galβ (1-2) Glc, 25-30% by weight Galβ (1-6)Gal, and 1-5% by weight Galβ (1-3) Gal, and optionally further containsone or more digestible saccharides or oligosaccharides. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of oligosaccharidescomprising 3.9% by weight of a mixture of tri- to hexa-saccharides,32.6% by weight Galβ (1-6) Glc, 7.6% by weight Galβ (1-3) Glc, 9.4% byweight Galβ (1-2) Glc, 27.2% by weight Galβ (1-6) Gal, and 2.5% Galβ(1-3) Gal, and optionally further contains one or more digestiblesaccharides or oligosaccharides. Digestible saccharides oroligosaccharides are carbohydrates that can be digested by the humandigestive system, and include but are not limited to lactose, galactose,or glucose. In one embodiment digestible saccharides found in a GOScomposition comprise lactose, galactose, or glucose. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition is a mixture of non-digestibleoligosaccharides and lactose, glucose or galactose. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition is composed of 62% by weightoligosaccharides and 38% digestible saccharides.

5. GOS and Saccharimetric Measurement

In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a mixture ofoligosaccharides, wherein the composition has a saccharimetricmeasurement at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or100 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises amixture of oligosaccharides, wherein the composition has asaccharimetric measurement of between about 50-100, 50-80, 60-80, or70-80 degrees Brix. In another embodiment, a GOS composition has asaccharimetric measurement of between about 72 and 78 degrees Brix. Forexample, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 93% GOS andhave a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In another embodiment,a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 93% GOS, less thanabout 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, andgalactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75± degrees Brix. In yetanother embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about93% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about 10ppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have asaccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

In another embodiment a GOS composition can comprise greater than about95% GOS and have a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 95% GOS,less than about 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, andgalactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75± degrees Brix. In yetanother embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about95% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about 10ppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have asaccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

In another embodiment a GOS composition can comprise greater than about96% GOS and have a saccharimetric degree of 75 degrees Brix. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about 96% GOS,less than about 5% digestible saccharides (such as lactose, glucose, andgalactose), and have a saccharimetric degree of 75± degrees Brix. In yetanother embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise greater than about96% GOS, less than about 5% digestible saccharides, less than about 10ppm heavy metals, less than 0.1% sulphated ash, and have asaccharimetric measurement of 75 degrees Brix.

6. Percentages and Amounts of GOS in Prebiotic Compositions

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOScomposition wherein the GOS composition comprises 1-100% by weight GOS.The percentage by weight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative tothe total dry weight of the GOS composition. In this application,compositions containing GOS may be referred to as GOS [Number], where[Number] refers to the percent by weight of GOS relative to the totaldry weight of the GOS composition within the actual composition containsbetween 90 to 100% of the claimed amount. For example, GOS 60 refers toa composition that contains between 54% and 66% GOS by weight relativeto the total dry weight of the composition. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 1% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 5% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 10% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 20% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 30% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 40% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 50% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 60% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 70% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises 72.3% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 80% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 85% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 90% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 91% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 92% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 93% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 94% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 95% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 96% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 96.8% by weight GOS. In another embodiment,a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 97% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 98% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 99% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 100% by weight GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises between 0.1% and 100% GOS. In another embodiment,a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS composition wherein the GOScomposition comprises about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%,11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%,25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%,39%, 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%,53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 66%,67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79% 80%,81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%,95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% by weight GOS. The percentage byweight of GOS refers to the weight of GOS relative to the total dryweight of the prebiotic or GOS composition.

In another embodiments, a prebiotic composition or pharmaceuticalcomposition comprises a GOS composition, wherein the GOS compositioncomprises about 90%, 90.1%, 90.2%, 90.3%, 90.4%, 90.5%, 90.6%, 90.7%,90.8%, 90.9%, 91%, 91.1%, 91.2%, 91.3%, 91.4%, 91.5%, 91.6%, 91.7%,91.8%, 91.9%, 92%, 92.1%, 92.2%, 92.3%, 92.4%, 92.5%, 92.6%, 92.7%,92.8%, 92.9%, 93%, 93.1%, 93.2%, 93.3%, 93.4%, 93.5%, 93.6%, 93.7%,93.8%, 93.9%, 94%, 94.1%, 94.2%, 94.3%, 94.4%, 94.5%, 94.6%, 94.7%,94.8%, 94.9%, 95%, 95.1%, 95.2%, 95.3%, 95.4%, 95.5%, 95.6%, 95.7%,95.8%, 95.9%, 96%, 96.1%, 96.2%, 96.3%, 96.4%, 96.5%, 96.6%, 96.7%,96.8%, 96.9%, 97%, 97.1%. 97.2%, 97.3%, 97.4%, 97.5%, 97.6%, 97.7%,97.8%, 97.9%, 98%, 98.1%, 98.2%, 98.3%, 98.4%, 98.5%, 98.6%, 98.7%,98.8%, 98.9%, 99%, 99.1%, 99.2%, 99.3%, 99.4%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%,99.8%, 99.9%, 100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refersto the weight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the prebioticor GOS composition.

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOScomposition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about10-90%, about 20-90%, about 30-90%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about 60-70%, about70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 80-90%, about90-96%, about 93-96%, about 93-95%, about 94-98%, about 93-99%, or about90-100% by weight GOS. The percentage by weight of GOS refers to theweight of GOS relative to the total dry weight of the prebiotic or GOScomposition.

In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises 0.01-20 g of aGOS composition, such as about 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07,0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5,3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11,11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18,18.5, 19, 19.5, or about 20 g of GOS composition. In another embodimenta prebiotic composition comprises about 0.1-2 g of a GOS composition.

A prebiotic product can comprise GOS for improving gut health bypromoting the growth of bifidobacteria in the gut. In one embodiment,high purity GOS compositions (about or greater than 85% GOS by weight,e.g. GOS 95) selectively increases intestinal populations of beneficialbacteria or enteric colonization of lactose metabolizing bacteria, suchas bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, without increasing the growth ofharmful bacteria or without a similar and proportionate increase in manyundesirable microbes, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli). This can be incontrast to compositions with lower percentage by weight GOS. Forexample, contaminating simple carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, galactose,lactose) may have been sufficient to stimulate the growth of E. colistrains to levels equal to free glucose. Thus, higher purity GOSformulations can have a greater potential to selectively promote thegrowth of beneficial lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Increasedcolonization of lactose metabolizing colonic bacteria, such asbeneficial, lactose-fermenting lactobacilli and bifidobacteria, has beenassociated with increased β-galactosidase activity and GOS utilization,thereby increasing the fermentation of lactose into galactose, glucoseand short chain fatty acids. In one embodiment, a high purity GOScomposition reduces lactose-derived gas production and mitigates thesymptoms of lactose intolerance. In one embodiment, metabolism of a GOScomposition by lactobacilli and bifidobacteria yields organic acids andother agents that inhibit enteric pathogens. In another embodiment, aGOS composition provides a selective advantage for organisms in the gutthat can use them. In another embodiment, a GOS composition acts asanti-adhesives for bacteria in the gut. In another embodiment a mixtureof oligosaccharides is useful for the preparation of a medicament forpreventing the adhesion of pathogens or toxins produced by pathogens tothe gut wall. In another embodiment, the beneficial effect of highpurity GOS compositions on the bacterial flora is with acuteadministration (≦30 days). In one embodiment, the dose of GOS (˜95%) istitrated from a starting dose as low as 1.5 g/day to a final dose of 12g/day (6 g BID) at the end of either a 15-day or 30-day treatmentperiod. In one embodiment, the dose of GOS (˜95%) is equivalent to 200mg/kg/day for a 60 kg adult.

In one embodiment a composition is provided that comprises a suitableamount of a prebiotic composition that is effective for promoting thegrowth of probiotics such that fermentation in the gut is slowed orgastrointestinal health is improved. In one embodiment prebiotics can beadministered in an amount per serving from about 1 mg to about 20 g, orabout 1 mg to about 15 g, or about 1 mg to about 10 g, or about 1 mg toabout 5 g, or about 2 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 2 mg to about 500mg, or about 2 mg to about 200 mg, or about 2 mg to about 100 mg, orabout 2 mg to about 50 mg, or about 2 mg to about 20 mg, or about 5 mgto about 10 mg, or about 5, 6, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, or 10 mg or about 0.25 g toabout 1.7 g. In another embodiment a prebiotic can be administered in anamount per serving of about 1 g, about 2 g, about 3 g, about 4 g, about5 g, about 6 g, about 7 g, about 8 g, about 9 g, about 10 g, about 11 g,about 12 g, about 13 g, about 14 g, about 15 g, about 16 g, about 17 g,about 18 g, about 19 g, or about 20 g. In another embodiment, theprebiotic used can be from about 0.1 g to about 15 g, or about 0.1 g toabout 1 g, or about 0.1 g to about 0.5 g or about 0.1 g to about 2 g, orabout 0.5 g to about 1 g, or about 0.2 g to about 1 g, or about 1 g toabout 5 g, or about 1 g to about 15 g per serving.

In one embodiment, the smallest effective amount of prebiotic is used.The prebiotic can be about 0.5% to about 100% by weight of a prebioticcomposition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition (e.g., GOS) canbe administered in a dose from about 1 mg to about 25 g, or about 1 mgto about 5 g, or about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 1 mg to about 500mg, or about 1 mg to about 200 mg, or about 1 mg to about 100 mg, orabout 1 mg to about 50 mg, or about 2 mg to about 20 mg, or about 5 mgto about 10 mg, or about 5, 6, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, or 10 mg. In anotherembodiment, a prebiotic composition is used in a dose of about 7.5 mg.In one embodiment the dose of a prebiotic composition administered to asubject can be increased from about 1 g to about 10 g over time. In oneembodiment an initial dose of a prebiotic composition can be 1-3 grams.This dose can be increased over time (e.g., days or a week) so that thefinal dose is about 10 g of GOS. In one embodiment, a high percentageGOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is derived from a lower percentage GOScomposition (e.g., GOS 60). In one embodiment, a high percentage GOScomposition is a purified form of the food ingredient β-linkedgalacto-oligosaccharide.

In one embodiment, the GOS has a molecular weight of342.29+(162.15)_(n−1), and an empirical formula ofC_(n6)H_(22+(n−1)10)O_(6+n5). In one embodiment, the GOS has one or moreof the following physical characteristics: clear or pale yellow syrup,sweet taste, freely soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohols,insoluble in ether and chlorinated solvents, and a density >1.30gram/mL.

In one embodiment, a GOS composition is an odorless, colorless to paleyellow, viscous liquid or syrup. In one embodiment, a GOS syrup isfilled directly into high density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles containingone dose per bottle, without additional ingredients. In one embodiment,a GOS composition has the specification as shown in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Example of a GOS composition specification Parameter MethodAcceptance Criteria Appearance Visual Clear, slightly yellow viscoussyrup Identification HPLC Retention time matches that of referencematerial Assay HPLC 90-110% label claim Related substances HPLC Reportrelated substances and individual impurities ≧ LOQ (≧0.05% of sum of GOSpeaks) Report total related substances and impurities Dose Variation USP<905> Complies Deliverable Volume USP <698> Complies Microbial LimitsUSP <61> Complies

In one embodiment, a GOS syrup is stable when filled into HDPE bottlesfitted with the cap. In one embodiment, capped bottles containing lowand high dose GOS compositions have a stability at 25° C./60% RH and 40°C./75% RH for at least six months.

In one embodiment, a lower percentage GOS composition is purified to apharmaceutical grade by the elimination of residual glucose, lactose andgalactose by the organisms used in making bread (Saccharomycescerevisiae) and yogurt (Streptococcus thermophilis) to yield a highpercentage GOS composition. Further processing can includeultrafiltration, nanofiltration, decolorization, deionization, andconcentration to yield high percentage GOS compositions. High percentageGOS compositions can contain the same galacto oligosaccharides as lowpercentage GOS compositions. In one embodiment, the lower purity GOScomposition is non-digestible fibers derived from lactose. In oneembodiment, high percentage GOS compositions are manufactured accordingto the process outlined in FIG. 19. In one embodiment, the purity of ahigh percentage GOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is assessed by highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis.

7. GOS and Other Components of GOS Compositions

Table 2 contains a product specification for a high purity GOScomposition (GOS 95), illustrating the criteria used to evaluate purityof a GOS composition such as GOS 95.

TABLE 2 Specification for a high purity GOS composition (GOS 95) TestResults Appearance Colorless or slightly yellow syrup Saccharometricdegrees 75 ± 3° Brix Purity HPLC Σ_(GOS) >93% RSΣ_(lactose+glucose+galactose) <5% RS Density >1.300 g/mL Color (420 nm)<0.5 AU Appearance of 10% solution Clear and colorless pH (10% solution)3.0 ÷ 7.0 Conductivity (10% solution) <100 μS/cm Viscosity Run andreport Specific Optical rotation (10% +48.0° ÷ +55.0° solution) Heavymetals (Pb²⁺) ≦10 ppm Sulphated ash ≦10% Organic volatile impurityEthanol <5000 ppm Methanol <3000 ppm Microbiology Bacterial count <100ufc/g Mould and yeasts <10 ufc/g E. Coli Absent/g Salmonella spAbsent/10 g

Table 3 contains data from a certificate of analysis of a 96.8% GOScomposition, illustrating other components that can be in a prebioticcomposition comprising a GOS composition.

TABLE 3 Certificate of analysis Test Results Refractometric driedsubstance 76.5° BxRDS Purity GOS 96.8% Related substances Lactose 2.0%Glucose <0.1% Galactose 1.1% Density 1,383 g/ml Color (420 nm) 0.041A.U. Appearance of solution Clear pH (10% solution) 5.8 Conductance (10%solution) 22.7 μS/cm Viscosity 7295 cP Organic Volatile ImpuritiesMethanol 17.0 ppm Ethanol <10 ppm Heavy metals (Pb²⁺) <10 ppm Sulphatedashes 0.07% Specific optical rotation +44.6° T.A.M.C. (total aerobic 40cfu/ml microbial count) T.Y.M.C. (total combined 5 cfu/ml Yeasts andMolds count) Salmonella s. Absent cfu/10 ml Escherichia coli Absentcfu/ml

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS compositionwherein the GOS composition comprises about 70% by weight GOS, about 3%by weight moisture, about 30% by weight other saccharides, about 0.1% byweight ash, about 1 ppm heavy metal (e.g., Pb), and about 1 ppm arsenic(As₂O₃). In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOScomposition wherein the GOS composition comprises about 70-75% by weightGOS, about 1-3% by weight moisture, about 20% by weight lactose, lessthan 1% by weight glucose, less than 1% by weight galactose, about 0.1%by weight ash, about 1 ppm heavy metal (e.g., Pb), and about 1 ppmarsenic (As₂O₃).

In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises GOS and one or more ofwater or digestible saccharides. In one embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises less than about 10 ppm of a heavy metal (such as arsenic orlead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5,4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises less than about 0.10% sulphated ash, including butnot limited to less than about 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2,or 0.1% sulphated ash. In another embodiment, a GOS composition cancomprise greater than about 90% GOS, less than about 5% digestiblesaccharides, less than about 10 ppm of heavy metals, and less than about0.10% sulphated ash. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprisesless than about 5000 ppm ethanol and less than about 3000 ppm methanol.In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises a bacterial count ofless than about 100 cfu/g, and a mold count of less than about 10 cfu/g.

In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about10-90%, about 20-90%, about 30-90%, about 40-90%, about 40-80%, about40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about 50-80%, about50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about 60-70%, about70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 80-90%, about92-100%, about 93-99%, about 94-98%, about 92-96%, about 93-96%, orabout 93-95% by weight GOS and less than about 10 ppm heavy metals andless than about 0.10% sulphated ash. Standard analytical methods can beused to determine the amount of the various components in the prebioticor GOS composition, such as but not limited to HPLC, colorimetry (e.g.,sodium sulfide colorimetry), or spectrophotometry (e.g., atomicabsorption spectrophotometry).

In another embodiment, the absorbance of a GOS composition at about A₄₂₀can be from about 0.3 AU to about 0.6 AU. In another embodiment, the pHof a GOS composition can be from about 3 to about 7. In one embodiment,the conductance of a GOS composition can be less than about 100 μS/cm.

FIG. 11 illustrates an HPLC chromatograph of a sample of one embodimentof a high purity GOS composition.

8. GOS and Digestible Saccharides

In one embodiment, a GOS composition can comprise about 1-5% digestiblesaccharides, such as lactose, glucose or galactose. In anotherembodiment, a GOS composition can comprise about 0.001 to about 1%glucose or about 0.01 to about 0.1% glucose. In another embodiment, aGOS composition can comprise about 0.1% galactose to about 2% galactose.In another embodiment, the density of a GOS composition can be about1200 to about 1500 g/mL.

In one embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 1-80%,about 1-70%, about 1-60%, about 1-50%, about 1-40%, about 40-90%, about40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about80-90%, about 90-96%, about 93-96%, about 93-95%, about 94-98%, about93-99%, or about 92-100% by weight GOS and no digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a GOS compositionwherein the GOS composition comprises about 1-90%, about 1-80%, about1-70%, about 1-60%, about 1-50%, about 1-40%, about 40-90%, about40-80%, about 40-70%, about 40-60%, about 40-50%, about 50-90%, about50-80%, about 50-70%, about 50-60%, about 60-90%, about 60-80%, about60-70%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about 70-90%, about 70-80%, about80-90%, about 92-100%, about 93-99%, about 94-98%, about 92-96%, about93-96%, or about 93-95% by weight GOS and less than about 6% (such asabout 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1%) digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 70% GOS and about20% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 70-75% GOS and about 5-30% digestible saccharides.

In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 1%, 5%, 10%,15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%,85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, or 95% by weight GOS and about 1-10% by weightdigestible saccharides. In one embodiment these digestible saccharidesare byproducts of the GOS synthesis process.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92%GOS and about 8% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 92% GOS and no digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% GOS and nolactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 92% GOS and about 1-8% digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 92% by weight GOSand about 8% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment aGOS composition comprises about 92% by weight GOS and about 5% by weightdigestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93%GOS and about 7% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 93% GOS and no lactose. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% GOS and no lactose,glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprisesabout 93% GOS and about 1-7% digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 93% by weight GOS and about1-7% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 93% by weight GOS and about 7% by weightdigestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 93% by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestiblesaccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94%GOS and about 6% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 94% GOS and no lactose. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% GOS and no lactose,glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprisesabout 94% GOS and about 1-6% digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 94% by weight GOS and about5% by weight digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95%by weight GOS and about 5% by weight digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and no lactose. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS and nolactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 95% GOS and about 1-5% digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 95% by weight GOSand about 1-5% by weight digestible saccharides, such as digestiblesaccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96%by weight GOS and about 4% by weight digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and no lactose. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% GOS and nolactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 96% GOS and about 1-4% digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 96% by weight GOSand about 1-4% by weight digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97%GOS and about 3% digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 97% GOS and no lactose. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% GOS and no lactose,glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprisesabout 97% GOS and about 1-3% digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 97% by weight GOS and about1-3% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 97% by weight GOS and about 3% by weightdigestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98%by weight GOS and about 2% by weight digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and no lactose. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 98% GOS and nolactose, glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS compositioncomprises about 98% GOS and about 0.1-2% digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and digestiblesaccharides. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99%GOS and lactose, glucose, galactose or a combination thereof. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% by weight GOS and about1% by weight digestible saccharides. In another embodiment a GOScomposition comprises about 99% GOS and no lactose. In anotherembodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99% GOS and no lactose,glucose, or galactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition comprisesabout 99% GOS and about 0.1-1% digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 100% GOS.

In some embodiments, a GOS composition comprises about 1%, about 2%,about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%,about 10%, about 15%, or about 20% by weight of digestible saccharides.In another embodiment a GOS composition comprises about 99.9%, 99.5%,99%, 98.5%, 98%, 97.5%, 97%, 96.5%, 96%, 95.5%, 95%, 94.5%, 94%, 93.5%,93%, 92.5%, 92%, 91.5%, 91%, 90.5%, 90%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%,50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or 1% by weight GOS andone or more digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In oneembodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOS is a pharmaceuticalcomposition. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition consistsessentially of GOS. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition consistsessentially of GOS and is prepared or administered without any lactose.In another embodiment a prebiotic composition consists essentially ofGOS and comprises one or more digestible saccharides such as lactose,galactose, or glucose. These digestible saccharides can be present intrace amounts (e.g., less than 5% by weight of the composition) and canbe byproducts of the synthesis of the GOS.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about70% GOS and about 30% digestible saccharides by weight. For example, 8 gof a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise 5.6 g of GOS, 1.6g lactose, and 0.8 g of other digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOS, andoptionally digestible carbohydrates, are used in a method to stimulatelactose fermenting commensal microbes of the human gastrointestinaltract in an adaptation process designed to alleviate lactose intolerancesymptoms. In one embodiment, gradual feeding of a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS, at increasing doses over a defined time frame, can adaptthe lactose fermenting commensal microbes to efficiently metabolizelactose in lactose-intolerant individuals. In one embodiment thisadaptation is permanent.

9. GOS and Non-Digestible Saccharides

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises an effective amountof GOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide. In oneembodiment a prebiotic composition increases Beta-galactosidase activityof species of the Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium species. Inanother embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises an effective amountof GOS or another non-digestible saccharide to increase the lactaseactivity of intestinal bacteria (e.g., Lactobacilllus and/orBifidobacterium) which breaks down the lactose that is not digested by alactose intolerant human.

In one embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use of GOSand optionally another non-digestible saccharide to increaseBeta-galactosidase activity of lactobacilli or bifidobacteria. Inanother embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use of GOSand optionally another non-digestible saccharide to increase the lactaseactivity of intestinal bacteria (e.g., lactobacilli or bifidobacteria).In another embodiment a method of treatment is provided for the use ofGOS and optionally another non-digestible saccharide to prevent, treat,or reduce a symptom of lactose intolerance in a human. In anotherembodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance in a human is treated,prevented, or reduced by administration of a composition comprising GOSand optionally another non-digestible saccharide.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOSand no lactose. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprisesbetween 80-99.9% GOS and 20%-0.1% digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOS,between 0.1-20% digestible saccharides, and between 0.1-20%non-digestible saccharides other than GOS.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about90% GOS and no lactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS can comprise about 7.2 g of GOS. In another embodiment, aprebiotic composition comprises about 90% GOS and about 5% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.2 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 90% GOS,about 5% digestible saccharide, and about 2% non-digestible saccharidesother than GOS. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprisingGOS can comprise about 7.2 g of GOS, about 0.4 g digestible saccharide,and about 0.16 g of other non-digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about91% GOS and no lactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS can comprise about 7.28 g of GOS. In another embodiment,a prebiotic composition comprises about 91% GOS and about 5% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.28 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 91% GOS,about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharidesother than GOS. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprisingGOS can comprise about 7.28 g of GOS, about 0.4 g of digestiblesaccharides, and about 0.16 g of other non-digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprising GOS comprises about92% GOS and no lactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS can comprise about 7.36 g of GOS. In another embodiment,a prebiotic composition comprises about 92% GOS and about 5% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.36 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 92% GOS,about 5% digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharidesother than GOS. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprisingGOS can comprise about 7.36 g of GOS, about 0.4 g of digestiblesaccharides, and about 0.16 g of other non-digestible.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 93% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.44 g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebioticcomposition comprises about 93% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides.For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise7.44 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 93% GOS, about 5%digestible saccharides, and about 2% non-digestible saccharides otherthan GOS. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.44 g of GOS, about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides, andabout 0.16 g of other non-digestible.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 94% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.52 g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebioticcomposition comprises about 94% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides.For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise7.52 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides. In anotherembodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises about 94% GOS, about 5%digestible saccharides, and about 1% non-digestible saccharides otherthan GOS. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.52 g of GOS, about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides, andabout 0.08 g of other non-digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 95% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.6 g of GOS. In another embodiment, a prebioticcomposition comprises about 95% GOS and about 5% digestible saccharides.For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS can comprise7.6 g of GOS and about 0.4 g of digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 96% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.68 g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebioticcomposition comprising about 96% GOS comprises about 4% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.68 g of GOS and about 0.32 g of digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 97% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.76 g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebioticcomposition comprising about 97% GOS comprises about 3% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.76 g of GOS and about 0.24 g of digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 98% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.84 g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebioticcomposition comprising about 96% GOS comprises about 2% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.84 g of GOS and about 0.16 g of digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 99% GOS and nolactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOS cancomprise about 7.92 g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebioticcomposition comprising about 99% GOS comprises about 1% digestiblesaccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise 7.92 g of GOS and about 0.08 g of digestible saccharides.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises about 100% GOS andno lactose. For example 8 g of a prebiotic composition comprising GOScan comprise about 8.0 g of GOS. In other embodiments, a prebioticcomposition comprising about 99.9% GOS comprises less than about 1%digestible saccharides. For example, 8 g of a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS can comprise 8.0 g of GOS and about 0.1 g of digestiblesaccharides.

10. GOS Effects

In one embodiment a GOS composition reduces or eliminates one or moresymptoms associated with lactose intolerance or with lactose digestiveproblems, including but not limited to cramps, flatulence, stomach pain,vomiting, bloating, diarrhea, nausea, gastric distention and intestinalpain, in a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment the subject is apatient. In another embodiment the subject is a human. In anotherembodiment the subject is a non-human animal.

C. FOS

FOS are chain oligomers or polymers of the sugar fructose that are foundin a variety of foods. The sugar units can be linked in a singlestraight chain or can be a chain with side branches. In many cases smallamounts of glucose are also contained in the chain. The length of thefructose chains can vary from source to source. FOS are primarilypolyfructans with a degree of polymerization (DP) generally ranging from2 to 20 (oligofructose) or greater than 20 (inulin). Generally, theD-fructose moieties in FOS are joined by β-(2-1) linkages and theoligomers or polymers are terminated with a D-glucose molecule linked tofructose by an α-(1-2) bond.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises a FOS composition,wherein the FOS composition comprises about 1% or more of thecomposition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47,48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83,84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100%FOS. In other embodiments, the FOS composition comprises about 0.5% ormore of FOS in the FOS composition by weight, such as about 0.5%, 1%,5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, or 35% FOS. In another embodiment theprebiotic or FOS composition comprises 0.01-20 g of FOS, such as about0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g ofFOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic or FOS composition comprisesFOS and water and one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodimenta prebiotic composition comprises less than about 10 ppm of a heavymetal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less thanabout 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal.

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a mixture ofFOS and GOS. In one embodiment, about 90% by weight of the prebioticcomponent is GOS and about 10% by weight of the prebiotic component isFOS. In one embodiment, about 50% by weight of the prebiotic componentis GOS and about 50% by weight of the prebiotic component is FOS. In oneembodiment, 1-90% by weight of the prebiotic component is GOS and 10-60%by weight of the prebiotic component is FOS. In another embodiment, theprebiotic component of a prebiotic composition is 90-100% by weight GOS.

D. Inulin

Inulin is an example of a longer chained compound that is considered tobe a FOS. The shorter (lower molecular weight) compounds tend to have asweet taste. The size and complexity of the FOS molecules gives itdesirable characteristics. Although the simple sugars fructose andglucose are quickly absorbed into the body by the intestines, FOS forthe most part is non-digestible and therefore acts as a fiber in thediet. This is because humans do not have the enzymes to break down theFOS as it travels down the digestive tract. When the FOS reaches thelarge intestine and the colon, the bacteria that are found there startto break down the FOS. These bacteria have the enzymes needed to breakdown FOS. Some Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus species have beenreported to use FOS. It is believed that foods that promote the growthof bifidobacteria are beneficial for gastrointestinal health.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises inulin, wherein theinulin comprises 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74,75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% inulin. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of inulin, such as about 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g ofinulin. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises inulin,water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises less than about 10 ppm of a heavy metal(such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less than about10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal.

E. Lactulose

Lactulose is a disaccharide that is formed from one molecule of fructoseand galactose. It can be produced by isomerization of lactose. In oneembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises lactulose(4-O-β-D-Galactopyranosyl-β-D-fructofuranose), wherein lactulosecomprises about 1% or more of the composition by weight, such as about1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74,75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% lactulose. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of lactulose, such as about 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g oflactulose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition compriseslactulose, water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In oneembodiment the composition comprises less than about 10 ppm of a heavymetal (such as arsenic or lead), including but not limited to less thanabout 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal.

F. Raffinose

Raffinose (melitose, melitriose, gossypose, α-D-galactosylsucrose) is atrisaccharide composed of galactose, fructose, and glucose. The enzymeα-galactosidase, which is not found in the human digestive tract, canhydrolyze raffinose. Thus, in humans, raffinose passes through thestomach and upper intestine and is digested by bacteria that do containα-galactosidase in the lower intestine. In one embodiment a prebioticcomposition comprises raffinose, wherein the raffinose comprises 1% ormore of the composition by weight, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62,63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80,81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99,or 100% raffinose. In another embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprises 1-20 g of raffinose, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g of raffinose. In anotherembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises raffinose or one or moredigestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprises less than about 10 ppm of a heavy, metal (such as arsenic orlead), including but not limited to less than about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5,4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal.

G. Stachyose

Stachyose is a tetrasaccharide that consists of two α-D-galactose units,one α-D-glucose unit, and one β-D-fructose unit. It is linked asgal(α1→6) gal(α1→6)glc(α1

2β)fru. Stachyose is not completely digestible by humans. In oneembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises stachyose, wherein thestachyose comprises 1% or more of the composition by weight, such asabout 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55,56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73,74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 90, 91, 92,93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% stachyose. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises 1-20 g of stachyose, such as about 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 g ofstachyose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition comprisesstachyose, water, or one or more digestible saccharides. In oneembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises less than about 10 ppm of aheavy metal (such as arsenic), including but not limited to less thanabout 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 ppm of a heavy metal.

H. GOS and Inulin

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and inulin. Inanother embodiment, the ratio of GOS:inulin is about 99:1, about 95:1,about 90:1, about 85:1, about 80:1, about 75:1, about 70:1, about 65:1,about 60:1, about 55:1, about 50:1, about 45:1, about 40:1, about 35:1,about 30:1, about 25:1, about 20:1, about 15:1, about 10:1, about 9:1,about 8:1, about 22:3, about 7:1, about 6:1, about 5:1, about 4:1, about3:1, about 2:1, or about 1:1. In one embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprising GOS and inulin comprises between 0.4 g to 20 g GOS andinulin. A prebiotic composition comprising GOS and inulin can containabout 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6,1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3.1,3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6,4.7, 4.8, 4.9, 5, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 5.8, 5.9, 6, 6.1,6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 6.5, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.9, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10,10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17,17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, or 20 g GOS and inulin.

III. Probiotics

A. Introduction

Probiotics (or probiotic bacteria) typically refer to beneficial livemicroorganisms, e.g., bacteria, found in the gastrointestinal tract and,when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on thehost (or subject in need thereof). Reports indicate that probioticmicrobes favorably alter the intestinal microbiota balance, inhibit thegrowth of harmful bacteria, promote good digestion, modulate immunefunctions, and increase resistance to both viral and bacterialinfections. Probiotics are also reported to produceangiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides, a key clinicaltarget for blood pressure control. Bacterial cultures that are generallyrecognized as safe (GRAS) or known commensal or probiotic microbes couldbe used to assist in the reduction or elimination of lactoseintolerance-like symptoms or improving overall GI health, for examplethrough colonic adaptation, are applicable in the methods andcompositions described herein.

B. Bacteria

Examples of probiotics include, but are not limited to, those thatacidify the colon such as those from the genera Lactobacillus orBifidobacterium, which are thought to maintain a healthy balance ofintestinal microbiota by producing organic acids (lactic & aceticacids), hydrogen peroxide, and bacteriocins which are documents toinhibit enteric pathogens. Bacteriocins are small antimicrobial peptideswhich can kill both closely-related bacteria, or exhibit a broaderspectrum of activity (e.g., nisin) which includes most Gram-positivepathogens (e.g., Listeria, Staphylococcus, and Clostridium species).

Non-exclusive examples of probiotic bacteria that can be used in themethods and compositions described herein include L. acidophilus, aprobiotic microbe which is an important member of the microbiota of theGI tract and has been used extensively and successfully as a probioticcultures in dietary supplements, foods, and dairy products. Thesebeneficial bacteria have been reported to modulate immune function,inhibit carcinogenesis, facilitate metabolism of cholesterol, and assistin digestion. Numerous reports over many Lactobacillus species arereported to promote a healthy microbiota, reduce putrefaction, andreduce endotoxemia. Other Lactobacillus bacteria which can be employedinclude, but are not limited to, L. crispatus, L. casei, L. rhamnosus,L. reuteri, L. fermentum, L. plantarum, L. sporogenes, and L.bulgaricus. Other probiotic bacteria suitable for the compositionsinclude Bifidobacterium lactis, B. animalis, B. bifidum, B. longum, B.adolescentis, and B. infantis. Yeasts, such as Saccharomyces boulardii,are also suitable as probiotics and may act to restore the intestinalmicrobiota. Mixtures of one or more species or strains of bacteria canbe used. For example, yogurt is a product which already containsbacteria species, such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcusthermophilus, which are used for fermentation. Yogurt can besupplemented with prebiotics and additional bacterial species that areconsidered probiotic cultures.

Other strains of probiotic bacteria that can be used in the methods andcompositions described herein include, for example, Bacillus coagulansGBI-30, 6086; Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12;Bifidobacterium breve Yakult; Bifidobacterium infantis 35624;Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis HN019 (DR10); Bifidobacteriumlongum BB536; Escherichia coli M-17; Escherichia coli Nissle 1917;Lactobacillus acidophilus DDS-1; Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5;Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM; Lactobacillus casei DN114-001(Lactobacillus casei Immunitas(s)/Defensis); Lactobacillus casei CRL431;Lactobacillus casei F19; Lactobacillus paracasei St 11 (or NCC2461);Lactobacillus johnsonii La1 (Lactobacillus LC1, Lactobacillus johnsoniiNCC533); Lactococcus lactis L1A; Lactobacillus plantarum 299V;Lactobacillus reuteri ATTC 55730 (Lactobacillus reuteri SD2112);Lactobacillus rhamnosus ATCC 53013; Lactobacillus rhamnosus LB21;Saccharomyces cerevisiae (boulardii) lyo; mixture of Lactobacillusrhamnosus GR-1 and Lactobacillus reuteri RC-14; mixture of Lactobacillusacidophilus NCFM and Bifidobacterium lactis BB-12 or BL-04; mixture ofLactobacillus acidophilus CL1285 and Lactobacillus casei; and a mixtureof Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Lactobacillus rhamnosus R0011.

In one embodiment, a composition comprises a prebiotic and probiotic. Inone embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises or consists essentiallyof GOS. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered withincreasing doses of probiotics during the period of treatment. Inanother embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered withconstant doses (dose amounts that do not change) of probiotics duringthe period of treatment. In another embodiment, a prebiotic compositionis administered with both increasing doses of probiotics for a portionof the treatment and a constant dose of probiotics during anotherportion of the treatment period.

C. Dose Timing and Size of Probiotics

In one embodiment, probiotic bacteria, such as L. acidophilus, are givenprior to beginning treatment with a prebiotic. In one embodiment,probiotic bacteria, such as L. acidophilus, are given in conjunctionwith treatment with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consistingessentially of GOS), for part or all of the treatment with theprebiotic. Thus, in one embodiment, some or all doses of a prebiotic(e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) are accompanied by adose of bacteria, e.g., live cultured bacteria, e.g., L. acidophilus. Inone embodiment, bacteria, e.g., L. acidophilus are given initially witha prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), butthen use of the bacteria is discontinued. For example, the initial one,two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more than tendays of treatment with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consistingessentially of GOS) further comprises doses of bacteria, with the use ofbacteria discontinued after that time. In one embodiment, bacteria,(e.g., bacteria in yogurt), or bacteria by themselves, can be given forthe first two days of treatment; then the administration of bacteria isdiscontinued. In another embodiment, probiotic bacteria, either alone orin combination with other substances or treatments are used after thetreatment with a prebiotic (comprising or consisting essentially of GOS)is terminated. The bacteria can be taken for any suitable period afterthe termination of treatment with prebiotic and can be taken daily or atregular or irregular intervals. Doses can be as described below.

Any suitable amount of probiotic per serving can be used that allows aneffective microbiota in the GI. Typically, probiotics are given as livecultured bacteria. The dose can be about 0.001 mg to about 1 mg, orabout 0.5 mg to about 5 mg, or about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 2mg to about 200 mg, or about 2 mg to about 100 mg, or about 2 mg toabout 50 mg, or about 4 mg to about 25 mg, or about 5 mg to about 20 mg,or about 10 mg to about 15 mg, or about 50 mg to about 200 mg, or about200 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 10, 11, 12, 12.5, 13, 14, or 15 mg perserving. In one embodiment, L. acidophilus is used in a dose of about12.5 mg per serving. The probiotic bacteria can also be about 0.5% w/wto about 20% w/w of the final composition. The dose of probiotics can begiven in combination with one or more prebiotics. Another common way ofspecifying the amount of probiotics is as a colony forming unit (cfu). Acfu is an individual cell which is able to clone itself into an entirecolony of identical cells. In one embodiment, one or more strains ofprobiotic bacteria are ingested in an amount of about 1×10⁶ to about1×10⁹ cfu's, or about 1×10⁶ cfu's to about 1×10⁹ cfu's, or about 10×10⁶cfu's to about 0.5×10⁹ cfu's, or about 113×10⁵ cfu's to about 113×10⁶cfu's, or about 240×10⁵ cfu's to about 240×10⁶ cfu's, or about 0.3×10⁹cfu's per serving. In another embodiment, one or more strains ofprobiotic bacteria are administered as part of a dairy product. In oneembodiment, a typical serving size for a dairy product such as fluidmilk is about 240 g. In other embodiments, a serving size is about 245g, or about 240 g to about 245 g, or about 227 to about 300 g. In oneembodiment the dairy product is yogurt. Yogurt can have a serving sizeof about 4 oz, or about 6 oz, or about 8 oz, or about 4 oz to 10 oz, orabout half cup, or about 1 cup, or about 113 g, or about 170 g, or about227 g, or about 245 g or about 277 g, or about 100 g to about 350 g.

In one embodiment probiotic bacteria are given as live culturedbacteria, e.g., in combination with a prebiotic (e.g., comprising orconsisting essentially of GOS) and, optionally, other substances. Thedose can be about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or about 2 mg to about 200 mg,or about 2 mg to about 100 mg, or about 2 mg to about 50 mg, or about 4mg to about 25 mg, or about 5 mg to about 20 mg, or about 10 mg to about15 mg, or about 10, 11, 12, 12.5, 13, 14, or 15 mg of probioticbacteria. In one embodiment, L. acidophilus is used in a dose of about12.5 mg. In one embodiment, as the administration of a prebiotic (e.g.,comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) dose to a subjectincreases, the dose of bacteria increases as well. For example, aninitial dose of a prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentiallyof GOS) can be about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, given in combinationwith about 10-15 mg, e.g., about 12.5 mg, of L. acidophilus. The dose ofa prebiotic (e.g., comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) can beincreased incrementally by about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, and theaccompanying dose of L. acidophilus can be increased by about 10-15 mg,e.g., about 12.5 mg, of L. acidophilus.

IV. GOS Formulations

A. Formulations Introduction

In one aspect a prebiotic composition for the treatment of the symptomsof lactose intolerance is provided. In one embodiment a prebioticcomposition comprises inulin, FOS, lactulose, GOS, raffinose, stachyose,or a combination thereof. In one embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprises or consists essentially of GOS. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises GOS and one or more digestiblesaccharides. Digestible saccharides are saccharides that are digestibleby humans and include, but are not limited to lactose, glucose, andgalactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS andless than 20% of one or more digestible saccharides. In one embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises GOS and less than 10% of one or moredigestible saccharides. In one embodiment a prebiotic compositioncomprises GOS and less than 5% of one or more digestible saccharides. Inanother embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 5%lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains lessthan 4% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition containsless than 3% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic compositioncontains less than 2% lactose. In another embodiment a prebioticcomposition contains less than 1% lactose. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition contains less than 0.5% lactose. In anotherembodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.4% lactose. Inanother embodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.3%lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains lessthan 0.2% lactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic compositioncontains less than 0.1% lactose. In another embodiment a prebioticcomposition contains less than 0.05% lactose. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition contains less than 0.01% lactose. In anotherembodiment a prebiotic composition contains less than 0.005% lactose. Inone embodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and essentially nolactose. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition does not contain anylactose. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition contains GOS andat least one probiotic bacteria strain. In another embodiment aprebiotic composition comprises GOS and optionally one or more oflactose, at least one probiotic bacteria strain, or a buffer. Additionalingredients include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives,antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS or a probiotic.In other embodiment, a prebiotic composition is in the form of a powder,tablet, capsule, or liquid. In one embodiment, a prebiotic compositioncan be administered with a dairy product and is in the form of milk orother common dairy product such as a yogurt, shake, smoothie, cheese,and the like.

In embodiments where a prebiotic composition comprises less than 100% byweight of GOS the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredientsintended for the consumption of the subject in need thereof, e.g.,human, including, but not limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), abuffer, one or more digestible saccharides, ingredients intended toinhibit clumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide andmicrocrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known inthe art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improvehandling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings, and the like.

B. Buffer Components

One or more buffers, optionally with a calcium counterion, can also beadministered in methods and compositions described herein. Any buffersuitable for consumption by the subject being treated, e.g., human, areuseful for the compositions herein. The buffer neutralizes stomachacidity which can, e.g., allow live bacteria to reach the gut. Buffersinclude citrates, phosphates, and the like. One embodiment utilizes abuffer with a calcium counterion, such as Calcium Phosphate Tribasic.The calcium can serve to restore the calcium that many lactoseintolerant subjects are missing in their diet. A recent studydemonstrated the ability of calcium phosphate to protect Lactobacillusacidophilus from bile. Calcium phosphate can help neutralize stomachacidity.

In one embodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate is given prior tobeginning treatment with a prebiotic composition (such as a compositioncomprising or consisting essentially of GOS), optionally in conjunctionwith administration of bacteria. In one embodiment, a buffer such ascalcium phosphate is given in conjunction with treatment with aprebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS), for part or all of the treatment with lactose.Thus, in one embodiment, some or all doses of a prebiotic compositionare accompanied by a dose of a buffer such as calcium phosphate. In oneembodiment, a buffer such as calcium phosphate is given initially with aprebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS), but then its use is discontinued. For example, theinitial one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, ormore than ten days of treatment with a prebiotic composition can includedoses of a buffer such as calcium phosphate, with the use of the bufferdiscontinued after that time. In one embodiment, a buffer such ascalcium phosphate can be given for the first two days of treatment, andthen the administration of buffer is discontinued. In one embodiment, abuffer such as calcium phosphate, either alone or in combination withother substances or treatments is used after the treatment with aprebiotic composition is terminated. A buffer such as calcium phosphatecan be taken for any suitable period after the termination of treatmentwith lactose, and can be taken daily or at regular or irregularintervals. Doses can be as described below.

Numerous buffers suitable for human consumption are known in the art,and any suitable buffer can be used in the methods and compositionsdescribed herein. Calcium triphosphate is an exemplary buffer, and itscounterion supplies a nutrient that is often lacking inlactose-intolerant subjects, i.e. calcium. In one embodiment a buffercan be used in a dose from about 2 mg to about 2000 mg, or about 4 mg toabout 400 mg, or about 4 mg to about 200 mg, or about 4 mg to about 100mg, or about 8 mg to about 50 mg, or about 10 mg to about 40 mg, orabout 20 mg to about 30, mg, or about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,28, 29, or 30 mg. In another embodiment a prebiotic composition furthercomprises an amount of a buffer from 1-50 mg, such as about 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 mg. In one embodiment, buffer isused in a dose of about 25 mg. In one embodiment, calcium phosphate isused in a dose of about 25 mg. The dose can be given in combination witha prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS). In one embodiment, as a prebiotic composition doseincreases, the dose of buffer increases as well. For example, an initialdose of a prebiotic composition can be about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8g, given in combination with about 20-30 mg, e.g., about 25 mg, ofbuffer, e.g., calcium phosphate. The dose of a prebiotic composition canbe increased incrementally by about 0.6 g to 1.0 g, e.g., 0.8 g, and theaccompanying dose of buffer, e.g., calcium phosphate, can be increasedby about 20-30 mg, e.g., about 25 mg, of buffer, e.g., calciumphosphate.

C. Compositions Comprising GOS and at Least One Probiotic BacteriaStrain

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and at leastone probiotic bacteria strain. The GOS can comprise more than 1% of theweight of the composition while the at least one probiotic bacteriastrain will typically comprise less than about 10%, 5%, 4%, 3%, or 2% byweight of the compositions (herein all percentages are weight percentunless otherwise indicated). For example, the GOS can be present atabout 1-99.75% by weight and the at least one probiotic bacteria strainat about 0.25-2% by weight, or the GOS can be present at about 89-96% byweight and the bacteria at about 1.2-3.7% by weight. In one embodiment,GOS are present at about 92% by weight and at least one probioticbacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), ispresent at about 1.5% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present atabout 92% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g.,L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 93% by weightand at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus orBifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight and at least oneprobiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacteriumlactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOSare present at about 95% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteriastrain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present atabout 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about96% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L.acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 97% by weightand at least one probiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus orBifidobacterium lactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 98% by weight and at least oneprobiotic bacteria strain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacteriiumlactis), is present at about 1.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOSare present at about 98.5% by weight and at least one probiotic bacteriastrain, (e.g., L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium lactis), is present atabout 1.5% by weight. If the at least one probiotic bacteria strain andGOS do not make up 100% by weight of the prebiotic composition, theremaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended forconsumption by the subject in need thereof, e.g., human, including, butnot limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), one or more buffers,digestible saccharides ingredients intended to inhibit clumping andincrease pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystallinecellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art.Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling,preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

D. Compositions Comprising GOS and a Buffer

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and abuffer (e.g., calcium phosphate tribasic). For example, GOS can bepresent at about 1-100% by weight and the buffer at about 0.50-4% byweight, or GOS can be present at about 1-96% by weight and the buffer atabout 1 to about 3.75% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present atabout 1% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 5% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 10%by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 15% by weight and buffer is presentat about 15% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 20%by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 25% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 30%by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 35% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 40%by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 50% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, GOS are present at about 60%by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, GOS are present at about 70% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about90% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 92% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about93% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about95% by weight and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 96% by weight and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about97% by weight and buffer is present at about 2% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 98% by weight and buffer is presentat about 1% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about99% by weight and buffer is present at about 1% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 100% by weight and buffer ispresent at less than about 1% by weight. If the buffer and GOS do notmake up 100% by weight of the composition, the remaining ingredients canbe any suitable ingredients intended for consumption by the subject(e.g., a human) including, but not limited to, probiotics (e.g.,beneficial bacteria) or other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), but also includingingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, suchas silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similaringredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can alsoinclude ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants,flavorings and the like.

E. Compositions Comprising a Digestible Saccharide, a ProbioticBacteria, and GOS

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestiblesaccharide, a probiotic bacteria (e.g., L. acidophilus orBifidobacterium), and GOS. In one embodiment, lactose can be present atabout 1-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.25-2.10% by weight, and GOSat about 1-98.75% by weight. In another embodiment lactose can bepresent at about 5-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.91-1.95% byweight, and GOS at about 1 to about 96% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 1% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 50% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 60% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 70% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 90% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 92% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 93% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, bacteria at about1% by weight, and GOS are present at about 94% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 4.5% by weight, bacteria atabout 1.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 94% by weight. Inanother embodiment, lactose is present at about 4.5% by weight, bacteriaat about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 95% by weight. Inanother embodiment, lactose is present at about 3.5% by weight, bacteriaat about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 96% by weight. Inanother embodiment, lactose is present at about 2.5% by weight, bacteriaat about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 97% by weight. Inanother embodiment, lactose is present at about 1.5% by Weight, bacteriaat about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 98% by weight. Inanother embodiment, lactose is present at about 0.5% by weight, bacteriaat about 0.5% by weight, and GOS are present at about 99% by weight. Ifthe bacteria, GOS and lactose do not make up 100% of the composition,the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended forconsumption by the subject, e.g., a human, including, but not limited toa buffer, digestible saccharides (e.g., lactose, glucose, or galactose),ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increase pourability, suchas silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, or similaringredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredients can alsoinclude ingredients to improve handling, preservatives, antioxidants,flavorings and the like.

F. Compositions Comprising GOS, a Probiotic Bacteria, and Buffer

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises GOS, a probioticbacteria strain, and buffer. In one embodiment, GOS can be present atabout 1-100% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 0.25-2% byweight, and the buffer at about 0.50-4% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS can be present at about 1-95% by weight, a probioticbacteria strain at about 0.91-1.95% by weight, and the buffer at about1.2-3.75% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 1%by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS arepresent at about 5% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 10% by weight, a probiotic bacteriastrain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 15% by weight, aprobiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about20% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS arepresent at about 25% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 30% by weight, a probiotic bacteriastrain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 35% by weight, aprobiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about40% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS arepresent at about 50% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 60% by weight, a probiotic bacteriastrain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 70% by weight, aprobiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about90% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS arepresent at about 92% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 93% by weight, a probiotic bacteriastrain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 94% by weight, aprobiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about95% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about 1.5% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS arepresent at about 96% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at about1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 2% by weight. In anotherembodiment, GOS are present at about 97% by weight, a probiotic bacteriastrain at about 1.5% by weight, and buffer is present at about 1.5% byweight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about 99% by weight, aprobiotic bacteria strain at about 0.5% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 0.5% by weight. In another embodiment, GOS are present at about100% by weight, a probiotic bacteria strain at less than about 0.5% byweight, and buffer is present at less than about 0.5% by weight. If theprobiotic bacteria strain, buffer, and GOS do not make up 100% of thecomposition, the remaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredientsintended for the consumption of a subject (e.g., human) including, butnot limited to, other prebiotics (e.g., FOS), digestible saccharides(e.g., lactose, glucose or galactose), ingredients intended to inhibitclumping and increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide andmicrocrystalline cellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known inthe art. Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improvehandling, preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

G. Compositions Comprising a Digestible Saccharide, GOS, and a Buffer

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestiblesaccharide, GOS, and a buffer. For example, lactose can be present atabout 1-20% by weight, GOS at about 1-100% by weight, and the buffer atabout 0.50-4% by weight, or the lactose can be present at about 5-20% byweight, GOS at about 1-96% by weight, and the buffer at about 1.2-3.75%by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight,GOS at about 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight.In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS atabout 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 10%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 15%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 20%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 25%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 30%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by, weight, GOS at about 35%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 40%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 50%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 60%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, GOS at about 70%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS at about 90%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight, GOS at about 92%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 4% by weight, GOS at about 93%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 3% by weight, GOS at about 94%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 2% by weight, GOS at about 95%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In anotherembodiment, lactose is present at about 1% by weight, GOS at about 96%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. If GOS, bufferand lactose do not make up 100% of the composition by weight, theremaining ingredients can be any suitable ingredients intended forconsumption by a subject (e.g., human) including, but not limited to,bacteria, ingredients intended to inhibit clumping and increasepourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, orsimilar ingredients as are well-known in the art. Remaining ingredientscan also include ingredients to improve handling, preservatives,antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

H. Compositions Comprising a Digestible Saccharide, Bacteria, GOS, and aBuffer

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprises a digestiblesaccharide, bacteria, GOS, and buffer. For example, lactose can bepresent at about 1-20% by weight, bacteria at about 0.25-2.10% byweight, GOS at about 1-100% by weight, and the buffer at about 0.50-4%by weight, or the lactose can be present at about 5-20% by weight,bacteria at about 0.91-1.95% by weight, GOS at about 70-95% by weight,and the buffer at about 1.2-3.75% by weight. In one embodiment, lactoseis present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight,GOS at about 1% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight.In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteriaat about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 10% by weight, and buffer ispresent at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present atabout 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 15%by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about1.47% by weight, GOS at about 20% by weight, and buffer is present atabout 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20%by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 25% byweight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment,lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% byweight, GOS at about 30% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight,bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 35% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose ispresent at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOSat about 40% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. Inone embodiment, lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria atabout 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 50% by weight, and buffer is presentat about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 60% byweight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment,lactose is present at about 20% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% byweight, GOS at about 70% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% byweight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 5% by weight,bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 90% by weight, andbuffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose ispresent at about 3% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS atabout 92% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In oneembodiment, lactose is present at about 2% by weight, bacteria at about1.47% by weight, GOS at about 93% by weight, and buffer is present atabout 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactose is present at about 1% byweight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight, GOS at about 94% by weight,and buffer is present at about 3% by weight. In one embodiment, lactoseis present at about 0.5% by weight, bacteria at about 1.47% by weight,GOS at about 95% by weight, and buffer is present at about 3% by weight.If the bacteria, GOS, buffer and lactose do not make up 100% of thecomposition by weight, the remaining ingredients can be any suitableingredients intended for consumption by a subject, e.g., human,including, but not limited to, ingredients intended to inhibit clumpingand increase pourability, such as silicone dioxide and microcrystallinecellulose, or similar ingredients as are well-known in the art.Remaining ingredients can also include ingredients to improve handling,preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like.

I. Additional Ingredients

Additional ingredients include ingredients to improve handling,preservatives, antioxidants, flavorings and the like. For example, inone embodiment, a prebiotic composition in powdered form can includeflavorings such that when mixed in a liquid (e.g., water), the powdercan flavor the liquid with various flavors such as grape, strawberry,lime, lemon, chocolate, and the like. In one embodiment, thecompositions include microcrystalline cellulose or silicone dioxide.Preservatives can include, for example, benzoic acid, alcohols, forexample, ethyl alcohol, and hydroxybenzoates. Antioxidants can include,for example, butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytolulene(BHT), tocopherols (e.g., Vitamin E), and ascorbic acid (Vitamin C).

V. Dosage Forms

A. General

Compositions described herein include any suitable form, includingliquid or powder. Powdered compositions can be as pure powder, or can bein the form of capsules, tablets, or the like. Powder can be packaged inbulk (e.g., in a container containing sufficient prebiotic or othersubstances for a subject to follow for an entire course of treatmentwith increasing doses of prebiotic, or a portion of a course oftreatment), or as individual packets (e.g., packets containing a singledose of prebiotic plus other components, or packets containing the doseof prebiotic and other components needed for a particular day of aprebiotic treatment regimen). If packaged in bulk, the powder can be inany suitable container, such as a packet, sachet, canister, ampoule,ramekin, or bottle. The container can also include one or more scoops orsimilar serving devices of a size or sizes appropriate to measure andserve one or more doses of prebiotic and, optionally, other ingredientsincluded in the powder. Liquid compositions contain prebiotic and,optionally, other ingredients, in a suitable liquid, e.g., water orbuffer. Liquid compositions can be provided in bulk (e.g., in acontainer containing sufficient prebiotic or other substances for onesubject in need thereof to follow an entire course of treatment withincreasing doses of prebiotic, or a portion of a course of treatment),or as individual containers, such as cans, bottles, soft packs, and thelike (e.g., containers containing a single dose of prebiotic plus othercomponents in suitable liquid, or containers containing the dose ofprebiotic and other components needed for a particular day of aprebiotic treatment regimen). The container can also include one or moremeasuring cups or similar serving devices of a size or sizes appropriateto measure and serve one or more doses of prebiotic and, optionally,other ingredients included in the liquid.

B. Oral Dosage Forms and Components

In one aspect provided herein are methods and compositions formulatedfor oral delivery to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment acomposition is formulated to deliver a composition comprising aprebiotic to a subject in need thereof. In another embodiment, apharmaceutical composition is formulated to deliver a compositioncomprising a prebiotic to a subject in need thereof. In anotherembodiment a composition is formulated to deliver a compositioncomprising prebiotic and a probiotic to a subject in need thereof.

1. Forms

In one embodiment, a composition is administered in solid, semi-solid,micro-emulsion, gel, or liquid form. Examples of such dosage formsinclude tablet forms disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,048,526, 3,108,046,4,786,505, 4,919,939, and 4950484; gel forms disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos.4,904,479, 6,482,435, 6,572,871, and 5013726; capsule forms disclosed inU.S. Pat. Nos. 4,800,083, 4,532,126, 4,935,243, and 6258380; or liquidforms disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,625,494, 4,478,822, and 5610184;each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Forms of the compositions that can be used orally include tablets,push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules madeof gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. Tablets canbe made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessoryingredients. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in asuitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing form such as apowder or granules, optionally mixed with binders (e.g., povidone,gelatin, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), inert diluents, preservative,antioxidant, disintegrant (e.g., sodium starch glycolate, cross-linkedpovidone, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) or lubricating,surface active or dispersing agents. Molded tablets can be made bymolding in a suitable machine a mixture of the powdered compoundmoistened with an inert liquid diluent. The tablets can optionally becoated or scored and can be formulated so as to provide slow orcontrolled release of the active ingredient therein. Tablets canoptionally be provided with an enteric coating, to provide release inparts of the gut (e.g., colon, lower intestine) other than the stomach.All formulations for oral administration can be in dosages suitable forsuch administration. The push-fit capsules can contain the activeingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such asstarches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and,optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds(prebiotics or probiotics) can be dissolved or suspended in suitableliquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethyleneglycols. In addition, stabilizers can be added. Dragee cores areprovided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugarsolutions can be used, which can optionally contain gum arabic, talc,polyvinyl pyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, or titaniumdioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solventmixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments can be added to the tablets or Drageecoatings for identification or to characterize different combinations ofactive compound doses.

Formulations for oral use can also be presented as hard gelatin capsuleswherein the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, forexample, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as softgelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with watersoluble carrier such as polyethylene glycol or an oil medium, forexample peanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil.

Oral liquid preparations can be in the form of, for example, aqueous oroily suspensions, solutions, emulsions syrups or elixirs, or can bepresented as a dry product for reconstitution with water or othersuitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations can containconventional additives, such as suspending agents, for example sorbitol,methyl cellulose, glucose syrup, gelatin, hydroxyethyl cellulose,carboxymethyl cellulose, aluminum stearate gel or hydrogenated ediblefats, emulsifying agents, for example lecithin, sorbitan monooleate,acacia; nonaqueous vehicles (which can include edible oils), for examplealmond oil, oily esters such as glycerine, propylene glycol, or ethylalcohol; preservatives, for example methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoateor sorbic acid, and, if desired, conventional flavoring or coloringagents.

In one embodiment, a provided prebiotic composition includes a softgelformulation. A softgel can contain a gelatin based shell that surroundsa liquid fill. The shell can be made of gelatin, plasticiser (e.g.,glycerin and/or sorbitol), modifier, water, color, antioxidant, orflavor. The shell can be made with starch or carrageenan. The outerlayer can be enteric coated. In one embodiment, a softgel formulationcan include a water or oil soluble fill solution, or suspension of aComposition, for example, a prebiotic composition, covered by a layer ofgelatin.

An enteric coating can control the location of where a prebioticcomposition is absorbed in the digestive system. For example, an entericcoating can be designed such that a prebiotic composition does notdissolve in the stomach but rather travels to the small intestine, whereit dissolves. An enteric coating can be stable at low pH (such as in thestomach) and can dissolve at higher pH (for example, in the smallintestine). Material that can be used in enteric coatings includes, forexample, alginic acid, cellulose acetate phthalate, plastics, waxes,shellac, and fatty acids (e.g., stearic acid, palmitic acid). Entericcoatings are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,225,202,5,733,575, 6,139,875, 6,420,473, 6,455,052, and 6569457, all of whichare herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. The entericcoating can be an aqueous enteric coating. Examples of polymers that canbe used in enteric coatings include, for example, shellac (trade nameEmCoat 120 N, Marcoat 125); cellulose acetate phthalate (trade nameaquacoat CPD®, Sepifilm™ LP, Klucel®, Aquacoat® ECD, and Metolose®);polyvinylacetate phthalate (trade name Sureteric®); and methacrylic acid(trade name Eudragit®).

In one embodiment, an enteric coated prebiotic composition isadministered to a subject. In another embodiment, an enteric coatedprobiotic composition is administered to a subject. In anotherembodiment, an enteric coated probiotic and prebiotic composition isadministered to a subject. In one embodiment, probiotic bacteria can beadministered to a subject using an enteric coating. The stomach has anacidic environment that can kill probiotics. An enteric coating canprotect probiotics as they pass through the stomach and small intestine.

Enteric coatings can be used to (1) prevent the gastric juice fromreacting with or destroying the active substance, (2) prevent dilutionof the active substance before it reaches the intestine, (3) ensure thatthe active substance is not released until after the preparation haspassed the stomach, and (4) prevent live bacteria contained in thepreparation from being killed because of the low pH-value in thestomach.

Enteric coatings can also be used for avoiding irritation of or damageto the mucous membrane of the stomach caused by substances contained inthe oral preparation, and for counteracting or preventing formation orrelease of substances having an unpleasant odor or taste in the stomach.Finally, such coatings can be used for preventing nausea or vomiting onintake of oral preparations.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is provided as a tablet,capsule, or caplet with an enteric coating. In one embodiment theenteric coating is designed to hold the tablet, capsule, or caplettogether when in the stomach. The enteric coating is designed to holdtogether in acid conditions of the stomach and break down in non-acidconditions and therefore release the drug in the intestines.

Softgel delivery systems can also incorporate phospholipids or polymersor natural gums to entrap a composition, for example, a prebioticcomposition, in the gelatin layer with an outer coating to give desireddelayed/control release effects, such as an enteric coating.

Formulations of softgel fills can be at pH 2.5-7.5.

A softgel formulation can be sealed tightly in an automatic manner. Asoftgel formulation can easily be swallowed, allow for productidentification using colors and several shapes, allow uniformity,precision and accuracy between dosages, be safe against adulteration,provide good availability and rapid absorption, and offer protectionagainst contamination, light and oxidation. Furthermore, softgelformulations can avoid unpleasant flavors due to content encapsulation.

A composition comprising a softgel formulation can be in any of numberof different sizes, including, for example, round, oblong, oval, tube,droplet, or suppositories.

In one embodiment a composition is provided in a dosage form whichcomprises an effective amount of prebiotic and one or more releasecontrolling excipients as described herein. Suitable modified releasedosage vehicles include, but are not limited to, hydrophilic orhydrophobic matrix devices, water-soluble separating layer coatings,enteric coatings, osmotic devices, multi-particulate devices, andcombinations thereof. In one embodiment the dosage form is a tablet,caplet, capsule or lollipop. In another embodiment, the dosage form is aliquid, oral suspension, oral solution, or oral syrup. In yet anotherembodiment, the dosage form is a gel capsule, soft gelatin capsule, orhard gelatin capsule.

In one embodiment, the dosage form is a gelatin capsule having a sizeindicated in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Gel cap sizes allowable for human consumption Empty GelatinCapsule Physical Specifications Outer Height or Actual Diameter LockedVolume Size (mm) Length (mm) (ml) 000 9.97 26.14 1.37 00 8.53 23.30 0.950 7.65 21.7 0.68 1 6.91 19.4 0.50 2 6.35 18.0 0.37 3 5.82 15.9 0.3 45.31 14.3 0.21 5 4.91 11.1 0.13 Note: sizes and volumes are approximate.

In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is providedin effervescent dosage forms. The compositions can also comprisenon-release controlling excipients.

In another embodiment, a composition comprising a prebiotic is providedin a dosage form that has at least one component that can facilitaterelease of the prebiotic. In a further embodiment the dosage form can becapable of giving a discontinuous release of the compound in the form ofat least two consecutive pulses separated in time from 0.1 up to 24hours. The compositions can comprise one or more release controlling andnon-release controlling excipients, such as those excipients suitablefor a disruptable semi-permeable membrane and as swellable substances.

In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is providedin an enteric coated dosage form. The composition can also comprisenon-release controlling excipients.

In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is providedin a dosage form for oral administration to a subject in need thereof,which comprises one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients orcarriers, enclosed in an intermediate reactive layer comprising agastric juice-resistant polymeric layered material partially neutralizedwith alkali and having cation exchange capacity and a gastricjuice-resistant outer layer.

In one embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided inthe form of enteric-coated granules, for oral administration. Thecompositions can further comprise cellulose, disodium hydrogenphosphate, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hypromellose, lactose, mannitol, andsodium lauryl sulfate.

In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is providedin the form of enteric-coated pellets, for oral administration. Thecompositions can further comprise glyceryl monostearate 40-50,hydroxypropyl cellulose, hypromellose, magnesium stearate, methacrylicacid copolymer type C, polysorbate 80, sugar spheres, talc, and triethylcitrate.

In one embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic is provided inthe form of enteric-coated granules, for oral administration. Thecompositions can further comprise carnauba wax, crospovidone,diacetylated monoglycerides, ethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose,hypromellose phthalate, magnesium stearate, mannitol, sodium hydroxide,sodium stearyl fumarate, talc, titanium dioxide, and yellow ferricoxide.

In another embodiment a composition comprising a prebiotic can furthercomprise calcium stearate, crospovidone, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose,iron oxide, mannitol, methacrylic acid copolymer, polysorbate 80,povidone, propylene glycol, sodium carbonate, sodium lauryl sulfate,titanium dioxide, and triethyl citrate.

The compositions provided herein can be in unit-dosage forms ormultiple-dosage forms. Unit-dosage forms, as used herein, refer tophysically discrete units suitable for administration to human ornon-human animal subject in need thereof and packaged individually. Eachunit-dose can contain a predetermined quantity of an activeingredient(s) sufficient to produce the desired therapeutic effect, inassociation with other pharmaceutical carriers or excipients. Examplesof unit-dosage forms include, but are not limited to, ampoules,syringes, and individually packaged tablets and capsules. Unit-dosageforms can be administered in fractions or multiples thereof. Amultiple-dosage form is a plurality of identical unit-dosage formspackaged in a single container, which can be administered in segregatedunit-dosage form. Examples of multiple-dosage forms include, but are notlimited to, vials, bottles of tablets or capsules, or bottles of pintsor gallons. In another embodiment the multiple dosage forms comprisedifferent pharmaceutically active agents. For example a multiple dosageform can be provided which comprises a first dosage element comprising acomposition comprising a prebiotic and a second dosage elementcomprising lactose or a probiotic, which can be in a modified releaseform.

In this example a pair of dosage elements can make a single unit dosage.In one embodiment a kit is provided comprising multiple unit dosages,wherein each unit comprises a first dosage element comprising acomposition comprising a prebiotic and a second dosage elementcomprising probiotic, lactose or both, which can be in a modifiedrelease form. In another embodiment the kit further comprises a set ofinstructions.

In one embodiment compositions can be formulated in various dosage formsfor oral administration. The compositions can also be formulated as amodified release dosage form, including immediate-, delayed-, extended-,prolonged-, sustained-, pulsatile-, controlled-, extended, accelerated-,fast-, targeted-, programmed-release, and gastric retention dosageforms. These dosage forms can be prepared according to known methods andtechniques (see, Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, supra;Modified-Release Drug Deliver Technology, Rathbone et al., Eds., Drugsand the Pharmaceutical Science, Marcel Dekker, Inc.: New York, N.Y.,2002; Vol. 126, which is herein incorporated by reference in itsentirety).

In one embodiment, the compositions are in one or more dosage forms. Forexample, a composition can be administered in a solid or liquid form.Examples of solid dosage forms include but are not limited to discreteunits in capsules or tablets, as a powder or granule, or present in atablet conventionally formed by compression molding. Such compressedtablets can be prepared by compressing in a suitable machine the threeor more agents and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The moldedtablets can be optionally coated or scored, having indicia inscribedthereon and can be so formulated as to cause immediate, substantiallyimmediate, slow, controlled or extended release of a compositioncomprising a prebiotic. Furthermore, dosage forms of the invention cancomprise acceptable carriers or salts known in the art, such as thosedescribed in the Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients, AmericanPharmaceutical Association (1986), incorporated by reference herein inits entirety.

In one embodiment, an effective amount of a composition comprising aprebiotic is mixed with a pharmaceutical excipient to form a solidpreformulation composition comprising a homogeneous mixture of compoundsdescribed herein. When referring to these compositions as “homogeneous,”it is meant that the agents are dispersed evenly throughout thecomposition so that the composition can be subdivided into unit dosageforms such as tablets, caplets, or capsules. This solid preformulationcomposition can then be subdivided into unit dosage forms of the typedescribed above comprising from, for example, about 1 g to about 20 mgof a prebiotic composition. A prebiotic composition can be formulated,in the case of caplets, capsules or tablets, to be swallowed whole, forexample with water.

The compositions described herein can be in liquid form. The liquidformulations can comprise, for example, an agent in water-in-solutionand/or suspension form; and a vehicle comprising polyethoxylated castoroil, alcohol, and/or a polyoxyethylated sorbitan mono-oleate with orwithout flavoring. Each dosage form comprises an effective amount of anactive agent and can optionally comprise pharmaceutically inert agents,such as conventional excipients, vehicles, fillers, binders,disintegrants, pH adjusting substances, buffer, solvents, solubilizingagents, sweeteners, coloring agents, and any other inactive agents thatcan be included in pharmaceutical dosage forms for oral administration.Examples of such vehicles and additives can be found in Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edition (1985).

2. Manufacturing

The dosage forms described herein can be manufactured using processesthat are well known to those of skill in the art. For example, for themanufacture of tablets, an effective amount of a prebiotic can bedispersed uniformly in one or more excipients, for example, using highshear granulation, low shear granulation, fluid bed granulation, or byblending for direct compression. Excipients include diluents, binders,disintegrants, dispersants, lubricants, glidants, stabilizers,surfactants and colorants. Diluents, also termed “fillers,” can be usedto increase the bulk of a tablet so that a practical size is providedfor compression. Non-limiting examples of diluents include lactose,cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, mannitol, dry starch, hydrolyzedstarches, powdered sugar, talc, sodium chloride, silicon dioxide,titanium oxide, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, calcium sulfate, calciumcarbonate, alumina and kaolin. Binders can impart cohesive qualities toa tablet formulation and can be used to help a tablet remain intactafter compression. Non-limiting examples of suitable binders includestarch (including corn starch and pregelatinized starch), gelatin,sugars (e.g., glucose, dextrose, sucrose, lactose and sorbitol),celluloses, polyethylene glycol, waxes, natural and synthetic gums,e.g., acacia, tragacanth, sodium alginate, and synthetic polymers suchas polymethacrylates and polyvinylpyrrolidone. Lubricants can alsofacilitate tablet manufacture; non-limiting examples thereof includemagnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, glyceryl behenate,and polyethylene glycol. Disintegrants can facilitate tabletdisintegration after administration, and non-limiting examples thereofinclude starches, alginic acid, crosslinked polymers such as, e.g.,crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone, croscarmellose sodium, potassium orsodium starch glycolate, clays, celluloses, starches, gums and the like.Non-limiting examples of suitable glidants include silicon dioxide,talc, and the like. Stabilizers can inhibit or retard drug decompositionreactions, including oxidative reactions. Surfactants can also includeand can be anionic, cationic, amphoteric or nonionic. If desired, thetablets can also comprise nontoxic auxiliary substances such as pHbuffering agents, preservatives, e.g., antioxidants, wetting oremulsifying agents, solubilizing agents, coating agents, flavoringagents, and the like.

In one embodiment, a softgel formulation is made with a gelatin mass forthe outer shell, and a composition including one or more substances, forexample prebiotics and/or probiotics, for the capsule fill can beprepared. To make the gelatin mass, gelatin powder can be mixed withwater and glycerin, heated, and stirred under vacuum. Additives, forexample, flavors or colors, can be added to molten gelatin using aturbine mixer and transferred to mobile vessels. The gelatin mass can bekept in a steam jacketed storage vessel at a constant temperature.

The encapsulation process can begin when the molten gel is pumped to amachine and two thin ribbons of gel are formed on either side ofmachine. These ribbons can then pass over a series of rollers and over aset of die that determine the size and shapes of capsules. A fillcomposition, for example a prebiotic and/or probiotic fill composition,can be fed to a positive displacement pump, which can dose the fill andinject it between two gelatin ribbons prior to sealing them togetherthrough the application of heat and pressure. To remove excess water,the capsules can pass through a conveyer into tumble dryers where aportion of the water can be removed. The capsules can then be placed on,for example, trays, which can be stacked and transferred into dryingrooms. In the drying rooms, dry air can be forced over capsules toremove any excess moisture.

3. Release Formulations

Immediate-release formulations of an effective amount of a prebioticcomposition can comprise one or more combinations of excipients thatallow for a rapid release of a pharmaceutically active agent (such asfrom 1 minute to 1 hour after administration). In one embodiment anexcipient can be microcrystalline cellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, sodium starch glycolate, corn starch, colloidal silica,Sodium Laurel Sulphate, Magnesium Stearate, Prosolve SMCC (HD90),croscarmellose Sodium, Crospovidone NF, Avicel PH200, and combinationsof such excipients.

“Controlled-release” formulations (also referred to as sustained release(SR), extended-release (ER, XR, or XL), time-release or timed-release,controlled-release (CR), or continuous-release) refer to the release ofa prebiotic composition from a dosage form at a particular desired pointin time after the dosage form is administered to a subject.Controlled-release formulations can include one or more excipients,including but not limited to microcrystalline cellulose, sodiumcarboxymethyl cellulose, sodium starch glycolate, corn starch, colloidalsilica, Sodium Laurel Sulphate, Magnesium Stearate, Prosolve SMCC(HD90), croscarmellose Sodium, Crospovidone NF, or Avicel PH200.Generally, controlled-release includes sustained but otherwise completerelease. A sudden and total release in the large intestine at a desiredand appointed time or a release in the intestines such as through theuse of an enteric coating are both considered controlled-release.Controlled-release can occur at a predetermined time or in apredetermined place within the digestive tract. It is not meant toinclude a passive, uncontrolled process as in swallowing a normaltablet. Examples include, but are not limited to, those described inU.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770; 3,916,899; 3,536,809; 3,598,123; 4,008,719;5,674,533; 5,059,595; 5,591,767; 5,120,548; 5,073,543; 5,639,476;5,354,556; 5,733,556; 5,871,776; 5,902,632; and 5,837,284 each of whichis incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In one embodiment a controlled release dosage form begins its releaseand continues that release over an extended period of time. Release canoccur beginning almost immediately or can be sustained. Release can beconstant, can increase or decrease over time, can be pulsed, can becontinuous or intermittent, and the like. Generally, however, therelease of at least one pharmaceutically active agent from acontrolled-release dosage form will exceed the amount of time of releaseof the drug taken as a normal, passive release tablet. Thus, forexample, while all of at least one pharmaceutically active agent of anuncoated aspirin tablet should be released within, for example, fourhours, a controlled-release dosage form could release a smaller amountof aspirin over a period of six hours, 12 hours, or even longer.Controlled-release in accordance with the compositions and methodsdescribed herein generally means that the release occurs for a period ofsix hours or more, such as 12 hours or more.

In another embodiment a controlled release dosage refers to the releaseof an agent, from a composition or dosage form in which the agent isreleased according to a desired profile over an extended period of time.In one embodiment, controlled-release results in dissolution of an agentwithin 20-720 minutes after entering the stomach. In another embodiment,controlled-release occurs when there is dissolution of an agent within20-720 minutes after being swallowed. In another embodiment,controlled-release occurs when there is dissolution of an agent within20-720 minutes after entering the intestine. In another embodiment,controlled-release results in substantially complete dissolution afterat least 1 hour following administration. In another embodiment,controlled-release results in substantially complete dissolution afterat least 1 hour following oral administration. For example,controlled-release compositions allow delivery of an agent to a subjectin need thereof over an extended period of time according to apredetermined profile. Such release rates can provide therapeuticallyeffective levels of agent for an extended period of time and therebyprovide a longer period of pharmacologic or diagnostic response ascompared with conventional rapid release dosage forms. Such longerperiods of response provide for many inherent benefits that are notachieved with immediate-release dosages. When used in connection withthe dissolution profiles discussed herein, the term “controlled-release”refers to wherein all or less than all of the total amount of a dosageform, made according to methods and compositions described herein,delivers an active agent over a period of time greater than 1 hour.

In one aspect, controlled-release refers to delayed release of an agent,from a composition or dosage form in which the agent is releasedaccording to a desired profile in which the release occurs after aperiod of time.

When present in a controlled-release oral dosage form, the compositionsdescribed herein can be administered at a substantially lower dailydosage level than immediate-release forms.

In one embodiment, the controlled-release layer is capable of releasingabout 30 to about 40% of the one or more active agents (e.g., prebioticor probiotic) contained therein in the stomach of a subject in needthereof in about 5 to about 10 minutes following oral administration. Inanother embodiment, the controlled-release layer is capable of releasingabout 90% of the one or more active agents (e.g., prebiotic orprobiotic) is released in about 40 minutes after oral administration.

In some embodiment, the controlled-release layer comprises one or moreexcipients, including but not limited to silicified microcrystallinecellulose (e.g., HD90), croscarmellose sodium (AC-Di-Sol), hydroxylmethyl propyl cellulose, magnesium stearate, or stearic acid. In oneembodiment, a controlled release formulation weighs between about 100 mgto 3 g.

Pharmaceutical carriers or vehicles suitable for administration of thecompounds provided herein include all such carriers known to thoseskilled in the art to be suitable for the particular mode ofadministration. In addition, the compositions can one or more componentsthat do not impair the desired action, or with components thatsupplement the desired action, or have another action.

In another embodiment, an effective amount of the prebiotic isformulated in an immediate release form. In this embodiment theimmediate-release form can be included in an amount that is effective toshorten the time to its maximum concentration in the blood. By way ofexample, certain immediate-release pharmaceutical preparations aretaught in United States Patent Publication US 2005/0147710A1 entitled,“Powder Compaction and Enrobing,” which is incorporated herein in itsentirety by reference.

The dosage forms described herein can also take the form ofpharmaceutical particles manufactured by a variety of methods, includingbut not limited to high-pressure homogenization, wet or dry ballmilling, or small particle precipitation (nano spray). Other methods tomake a suitable powder formulation are the preparation of a solution ofactive ingredients and excipients, followed by precipitation,filtration, and pulverization, or followed by removal of the solvent byfreeze-drying, followed by pulverization of the powder to the desiredparticle size.

In a further aspect the dosage form can be an effervescent dosage form.Effervescent means that the dosage form, when mixed with liquid,including water and saliva, evolves a gas. Some effervescent agents (oreffervescent couple) evolve gas by means of a chemical reaction whichtakes place upon exposure of the effervescent disintegration agent towater or to saliva in the mouth. This reaction can be the result of thereaction of a soluble acid source and an alkali monocarbonate orcarbonate source. The reaction of these two general compounds producescarbon dioxide gas upon contact with water or saliva. An effervescentcouple (or the individual acid and base separately) can be coated with asolvent protective or enteric coating to prevent premature reaction.Such a couple can also be mixed with previously lyophilized particles(such as a prebiotic). The acid sources can be any which are safe forhuman consumption and can generally include food acids, acid and hydriteantacids such as, for example: citric, tartaric, amalic, fumeric,adipic, and succinics. Carbonate sources include dry solid carbonate andbicarbonate salt such as, preferably, sodium bicarbonate, sodiumcarbonate, potassium bicarbonate and potassium carbonate, magnesiumcarbonate and the like. Reactants which evolve oxygen or other gassesand which are safe for human consumption are also included. In oneembodiment citric acid and sodium bicarbonate are used.

In another aspect the dosage form can be in a candy form (e.g., matrix),such as a lollipop or lozenge. In one embodiment an effective amount ofa prebiotic is dispersed within a candy matrix. In one embodiment thecandy matrix comprises one or more sugars (such as dextrose or sucrose).In another embodiment the candy matrix is a sugar-free matrix. Thechoice of a particular candy matrix is subject to wide variation.Conventional sweeteners such as sucrose can be utilized, or sugaralcohols suitable for use with diabetic patients, such as sorbitol ormannitol can be employed. Other sweeteners, such as the aspartanes, canalso be easily incorporated into a composition in accordance withcompositions described herein. The candy base can be very soft and fastdissolving, or can be hard and slower dissolving. Various forms willhave advantages in different situations.

A candy mass composition comprising an effective amount of the prebioticcan be orally administered to a subject in need thereof so that aneffective amount of the prebiotic will be released into the subject'smouth as the candy mass dissolves and is swallowed. A subject in needthereof includes a human adult or child.

In one embodiment a candy mass is prepared that comprises one or morelayers which can comprise different amounts or rates of dissolution ofthe prebiotic. In one embodiment a multilayer candy mass (such as alollipop) comprises an outer layer with a concentration of the prebioticdiffering from that of one or more inner layers. Such a drug deliverysystem has a variety of applications.

The choices of matrix and the concentration of the drug in the matrixcan be important factors with respect to the rate of drug uptake. Amatrix that dissolves quickly can deliver drug into the subject's mouthfor absorption more quickly than a matrix that is slow to dissolve.Similarly, a candy matrix that contains the prebiotic in a highconcentration can release more of the prebiotic in a given period oftime than a candy having a low concentration. In one embodiment a candymatrix such as one disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,671,953 or USApplication Publication No. 2004/0213828 (which are herein incorporatedby reference in their entirety) is used to deliver the prebiotic.

The dosage forms described herein can also take the form ofpharmaceutical particles manufactured by a variety of methods, includingbut not limited to high-pressure homogenization, wet or dry ballmilling, or small particle precipitation (e.g., nGimat's NanoSpray).Other methods useful to make a suitable powder formulation are thepreparation of a solution of active ingredients and excipients, followedby precipitation, filtration, and pulverization, or followed by removalof the solvent by freeze-drying, followed by pulverization of the powderto the desired particle size. In one embodiment the pharmaceuticalparticles have a final size of 3-1000 μM, such as at most 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350,400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000 μM. Inanother embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have a final size of10-500 μM. In another embodiment the pharmaceutical particles have afinal size of 50-600 μM. In another embodiment the pharmaceuticalparticles have a final size of 100-800 μM.

In one embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet, orcapsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about0.7 g of GOS, about 0.2 g of lactose, about 0.01 g of glucose, about0.01 g of galactose, about 0.1-0.2 g of a binder, about 0.1-0.2 g of adispersant, about 0.1-0.2 g of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS arecomposed of about 1-25% disaccharides, about 1-25% trisaccharides, about1-25% tetrasaccharides, and about 1-25% pentasaccharides. The oraldosage form can be in the form of a powder, capsule, or tablet. Suitableamounts of binders, dispersants, and solubilizers are known in the artfor preparation of oral tablets or capsules.

In another embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet orcapsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about1-99.9% by weight of GOS, about 0.5-20% by weight of lactose, about0.1-2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1-2% by weight of galactose, about0.05-2% by weight of a binder, about 0.05-2% by weight of a dispersant,about 0.05-2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composedof about 1-25% by weight disaccharides, about 1-25% by weighttrisaccharides, about 1-25% by weight tetrasaccharides, and about 1-25%by weight pentasaccharides.

In another embodiment an oral dosage form (such as a powder, tablet, orcapsule) is provided comprising a prebiotic composition comprising about1, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, 99.5, 100% by weight of GOS,about 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20% by weight of lactose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or2% by weight of glucose, about 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight ofgalactose, about 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a binder, about0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a dispersant, about 0.05, 0.1,0.5, 1, or 2% by weight of a solubilizer, wherein the GOS are composedof about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25% by weight disaccharides, about 1, 5,10, 15, 20, or 25% by weight trisaccharides, about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, or25% by weight tetrasaccharides, and about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25% byweight pentasaccharides.

In another embodiment, an oral dosage form is provided comprising aprebiotic composition, wherein the oral dosage form is a syrup. Thesyrup can comprise about 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%,50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, or 85% solid. The syrup can compriseabout 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, or 50% liquid, for example,water. The solid can comprise a prebiotic composition. The solid can be,for example, about 1-96%, 10-96%, 20-96%, 30-96%, 40-96%, 50-96%,60-96%, 70-96%, 80-96%, or 90-96% prebiotic composition. The solid canbe, for example, about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50,51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86,87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, or 96% prebiotic composition. In oneembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodimenta prebiotic composition comprises GOS and another prebiotic. In anotherembodiment a prebiotic composition comprises GOS and inulin or GOS andFOS.

In one embodiment, the softgel capsule is about 0.25 mL, 0.5 mL, 1.0 mL,1.25 mL, 1.5 mL, 1.75 mL, or 2.0 mL. In another embodiment, a softgelcapsule comprises about 0.1 g to 2.0 g of prebiotic composition. Inanother embodiment, a softgel capsule comprises about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7,1.8, 1.9, or 2.0 g of a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment theprebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment the prebioticcomposition consists essentially of GOS. In another embodiment, asoftgel capsule comprises GOS and inulin or FOS.

In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition will be delivered in agelatin capsule containing an amount of GOS within the ranges listed inTable 5. In another embodiment, the number of pills taken per day willbe within the ranges listed in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Exemplary GOS dosing units Exemplary GOS Composition Dosages inGel Caps # pills per Size GOS/Pill (g) day 000 1-2 1-15 00 0.6-1.5 1-250 0.4-1.1 1-38 1 0.3-0.8 1-50 2 0.25-0.6  1-60 3 0.2-0.5 1-75 40.14-0.3   1-107

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is provided that does notcontain a preservative. In another embodiment, a prebiotic compositionis provided that does not contain an antioxidant. In another embodiment,a prebiotic composition is provided that does not contain a preservativeor an antioxidant. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition comprisingGOS does not contain a preservative or an antioxidant.

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is formulated as aviscous fluid. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition isformulated such that its water content is low enough that it does notsupport microbial growth. In another embodiment, a prebiotic compositionis formulated as a viscous fluid without a preservative in a gelcapsule. In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition comprising GOSis a viscous fluid. In another embodiment, a prebiotic compositioncomprises a high percentage of GOS that does not support microbialgrowth. In another embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOSand inulin or FOS.

In another embodiment, an oral dosage form is provided comprising aprebiotic composition, wherein the oral dosage form is a softgel. In oneembodiment the softgel comprises a syrup. In one embodiment the syrupcomprises a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebioticcomposition comprises GOS. In another embodiment the prebioticcomposition comprises more than 80% GOS. In another embodiment theprebiotic composition comprises between 80-99.9% GOS. In anotherembodiment the prebiotic composition comprises more than 80% GOS. Inanother embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises about 80, 81, 82,83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or99.9% GOS.

In one embodiment a GOS composition is formulated for delivery in a softgel capsule. In one embodiment a GOS composition formulated for deliveryin a soft gel capsule is a high percentage GOS composition, such as a90-100% GOS composition (e.g., 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 or100% GOS composition by weight). In another embodiment a GOS compositionformulated for delivery in a soft gel capsule comprises about 95% GOS.In another embodiment a GOS composition formulated for delivery in asoft gel capsule comprises about 96% GOS. In another embodiment, the GOScomposition is formulated such that its water content is low enough thatit does not support microbial growth. In another embodiment, the GOScomposition is formulated as a viscous fluid without a preservative in agel capsule. In another embodiment, the GOS composition is formulated asa viscous fluid without an antioxidant in a gel capsule. In anotherembodiment the soft gel capsule comprises about 0.1-2 g of a GOScomposition.

In another embodiment a prebiotic composition can be formulated asdescribed, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,750,331, which is herein incorporated byreference in its entirety. A prebiotic composition can be formulated tocomprise an oligosaccharide, a foaming component, a water-insolubledietary fiber, or a neutralizing component. In one embodiment aprebiotic composition can be in the form of a chewable tablet.

In one embodiment a foaming component can be at least one memberselected from the group consisting of sodium hydrogencarbonate, sodiumcarbonate, and calcium carbonate. In one embodiment a neutralizingcomponent can be at least one member selected from the group consistingof citric acid, L-tartaric acid, fumaric acid, L-ascorbic acid, DL-malicacid, acetic acid, lactic acid, and anhydrous citric acid. In oneembodiment a water-insoluble dietary fiber can be at least one memberselected from the group consisting of crystalline cellulose, wheat bran,oat bran, cone fiber, soy fiber, and beet fiber. The formulation cancontain a sucrose fatty acid ester, powder sugar, fruit juice powder,and/or flavoring material.

Formulations of the provided invention can include additive componentsselected from various known additives. Such additives include, forexample, saccharides (excluding oligosaccharides), sugar alcohols,sweeteners and like excipients, binders, disintegrators, lubricants,thickeners, surfactants, electrolytes, flavorings, coloring agents, pHmodifiers, fluidity improvers, and the like. Specific examples of theadditives include wheat starch, potato starch, corn starch, dextrin andlike starches; sucrose, glucose, fructose, maltose, xylose, lactose andlike saccharides (excluding oligosaccharides); sorbitol, mannitol,maltitol, xylitol and like sugar alcohols; calcium phosphate, calciumsulfate and like excipients; starch, saccharides, gelatine, gum arabic,dextrin, methyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl alcohol,hydroxypropylcellulose, xanthan gum, pectin, gum tragacanth, casein,alginic acid and like binders and thickeners; leucine, isoleucine,L-valine, sugar esters, hardened oils, stearic acid, magnesium stearate,talc, macrogols and like lubricants; CMC, CMC-Na, CMC-Ca and likedisintegrators; polysorbate, lecithin and like surfactants; aspartame,alitame and like dipeptides; silicon dioxide and like fluidityimprovers; and stevia, saccharin, and like sweeteners. The amounts ofthese additives can be properly selected based on their relation toother components and properties of the preparation, production method,etc.

In one embodiment, a GOS composition is a chewable oral dosageformulation. In one embodiment the chewable formulation can comprisesbetween about 1-99.9% GOS. In one embodiment, a GOS compositioncomprises about 80% GOS, about 5% L-ascorbic acid, about 2% anhydrouscitric acid, about 3% sodium hydrogencarbonate, about 3% calciumcarbonate, about 2% sucrose fatty acid, about 3% fruit juice powder, andabout 2% potassium carbonate.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 85% GOS, about5% L-ascorbic acid, about 3% sodium hydrogencarbonate, about 2% sodiumcarbonate, about 2% sucrose fatty acid ester, about 2% fruit juicepowder, and about 1% potassium carbonate.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 90% GOS, about2% L-ascorbic acid, about 1% anhydrous citric acid, about 2% sodiumhydrogencarbonate, about 2% sodium carbonate, about 2% sucrose fattyacid ester, and about 1% potassium carbonate.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS, about2% L-ascorbic acid, about 1% sodium hydrogencarbonate, and about 2%fruit juice powder. In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprisesabout 95% GOS and about 5% of L-ascorbic acid, anhydrous citric acid,sodium hydrogencarbonate, calcium carbonate, sucrose fatty acid, fruitjuice powder, or potassium carbonate.

In another embodiment, a GOS composition comprises about 95% GOS andabout 5% of L-ascorbic acid, anhydrous citric acid, sodiumhydrogencarbonate, calcium carbonate, sucrose fatty acid, fruit juicepowder, and potassium carbonate.

VI. Treatment

A. Lactose Intolerance

The invention provides methods and prebiotic compositions useful for thereduction of symptoms of lactose intolerance and for improving overallgastrointestinal (GI) health. Symptoms of lactose intolerance includegas, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, and vomiting. Minordigestive problems related to the GI also include occasional bloating,diarrhea, constipation, gas, heartburn, or stomach upset. The methodsand compositions described herein can be useful for reducing oreliminating one or more of these symptoms, for example through colonicadaptation. These compositions are expected to modify the colonicmicrobiota, which may result in an increased tolerance to lactose andother fermentable carbohydrates. Furthermore, these compositions canallow the colonic microbiota, comprising microorganisms known toincrease the ability of an individual to tolerate fermentablecarbohydrates, to be regularly replenished through consumption of thecompositions. Adaptation of the intestinal and colonic microbiota,improve the composition of the intestinal microbiota, and the capacityfor consumption of foods comprising lactose can be increased. Forexample, an individual's tolerance to dairy in general can be improvedthrough regular consumption of a prebiotic composition. This change incolonic microbiota is useful for the reduction of bloating, diarrhea,gastric distention and pain, and/or flatulence from the consumption ofdairy products or other foods comprising lactose. In one embodiment, amethod of treating lactose intolerance is disclosed. In anotherembodiment, a method of treating at least one symptom of lactoseintolerance is disclosed.

There are at least three types of lactose intolerance. Primary lactoseintolerance results from a decrease in lactase production as a subjectages. Secondary lactose intolerance can result when a subject's smallintestine decreases lactase production after an illness, surgery, orinjury to the small intestine. Secondary lactose intolerance can occuras a result of Crohn's disease, celiac disease, or gastroenteritis. Thistype of lactose intolerance can be temporary or permanent. A third typeof lactose intolerance is congenital lactose intolerance, in which asubject is born with lactose intolerance. Risk factors that can make aperson more prone to lactose intolerance include, for example, age(lactose intolerance usually has an onset of after age 5), ethnicity(lactose intolerance is more common in black, Asian, Hispanic, andAmerican Indian populations), and premature birth (infants born 28 to 32weeks of gestation).

B. Testing Lactose Intolerance

Lactose intolerance can be tested either indirectly or directly.Indirect testing methods include, but are not limited to: a hydrogenbreath test, a stool acidity test, a blood glucose test, or milkchallenge test. In the hydrogen breath test, the breath is measured todetermine the amount of hydrogen produced after consuming a measuredamount of lactose, typically 15 g. The lactose is administered bydrinking a lactose mixture, and the subject exhales into a vacuum-sealedcollection tube at three one hour time intervals. A high level ofhydrogen in the breath indicates an improper digestion of lactose. In astool test, the stool is tested to determine the amount of acid. In ablood glucose test, the blood is tested to determine the amount ofglucose (sugar) content after administering a predetermined amount oflactose-containing product to the subject. Lactose maldigestion is oftendefined more specifically as an “increase in blood glucose concentrationof <1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20 ppm after ingestion of 1 g/kgbody weight or 50 g lactose” (de Vrese et al., 2001). The direct methodmeasures lactase activity in a mucosal biopsy specimen.

The stool acidity test is typically used to test lactose intolerance ininfants and young children. The hydrogen breath test is typically notrecommended for young children since dehydration can occur due todiarrhea after ingestion of the lactose-containing drink.

Effectiveness of treatment can be measured in a number of ways.Conventional measurements, such as those described, can be used beforeand after treatment. Alternatively, or in addition, the amount oflactose-containing product that can be administered before the onset ofone or more symptoms can be measured or evaluated before and aftertreatment. Thus, for example, treatment can be considered fully orpartially effective if, after treatment, less hydrogen is produced onaverage in a subject after challenge with a food comprising lactose(such as a dairy product).

In one embodiment, the Hydrogen Breath Test (HBT) is utilized todetermine facilitation of lactose metabolism by GOS containingcompositions (e.g. GOS 95), thereby resulting in less hydrogenproduction following lactose challenge as compared to baseline levels.In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentage composition,such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,97, 98, 99, or 100% by weight). In one embodiment, the HBT test involvesadministering 25 mg of lactose and determining the amount of hydrogen inthe breath at periodic intervals, usually for four to eight hours(Bhatnagar and Aggarwal 2007). In another embodiment, fecal bacterialevels are assessed for bacterial DNA samples to assess bacterialadaptation. In another embodiment, treatment with GOS compositions (e.g.GOS 95) is expected to provide relief from one or more lactoseintolerance symptoms beyond the treatment phase. In one embodiment theGOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% orgreater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% byweight).

More commonly, a subject cannot precisely test the amount of hydrogen oruse a blood glucose test to measure effectiveness. Instead, a subjectcan subjectively determine the quantity of lactose-containing productsthey can consume, and the types and degree of symptoms experienced aftersuch consumption. “Partial” elimination of symptoms of lactoseintolerance includes a subjective or measurable increase in the amountof lactose that can be consumed before the onset of symptoms.“Substantial” elimination of symptoms of lactose intolerance, as usedherein, encompasses an effect where at least about twice the amount oflactose or a lactose containing food can be consumed after treatmentbefore the onset of symptoms as could have been consumed beforetreatment. “Complete” or “substantially complete” elimination ofsymptoms of lactose intolerance, as used herein, indicates that normalamounts of lactose can be consumed after treatment (i.e., the amount oflactose in a typical diet for the area or culture in which the subjectnormally lives) without symptoms, or with only the rare occurrence ofsymptoms.

In one embodiment a subject in need thereof can consume one half cup (4oz.; about 120 mL) of milk with no, or minimal, symptoms of lactoseintolerance. However, consumption of 1 or more cups (about 240 mL) ofmilk causes symptoms of lactose intolerance, such as gas or diarrhea, tooccur. After treatment with a composition and/or dosing regimendisclosed herein, a subject can find that 1 and one-half cups (about 360mL) of milk can be consumed in a single administration without causingany symptoms of lactose intolerance. The subject would experience thesubstantial elimination of the symptoms of lactose intolerance. Inanother embodiment a subject can find that after treatment with acomposition and/or dosing regimen disclosed a normal diet for theirgeographical or cultural region can be consumed with no, or rare,symptoms of lactose intolerance.

In another embodiment effectiveness can be measured by a percentagedecrease in one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In thismeasurement, the severity of a predetermined symptom, or set of symptomsis measured before and after treatment, e.g., using pre and post Likertscale. Exemplary symptoms include gas, bloating, diarrhea, cramping,abdominal pain, and vomiting. Any one or more than one, of the symptomscan be measured. For example, a subject can be asked to rate one or moresymptoms on a scale of increasing severity from 1 to 5. In oneembodiment, a set of symptoms is rated, and the ratings are added; forexample, gas, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, abdominal distension,vomiting, nausea, or cramping can be rated. In another embodiment apercentage change in one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance can becalculated based on a subject's ratings before and after treatment witha composition or method disclosed herein. In one embodiment thecomposition is a prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebioticcomposition comprises GOS. In one embodiment symptoms of lactoseintolerance can be considered to be reduced by the a subject's reporteddecrease in one or more specific symptoms after challenge with a foodcomprising lactose (e.g., if there is a 50% decrease in symptoms, thensymptoms of lactose intolerance are reduced by 50%).

In another embodiment a milk challenge test is used to determine if asubject is lactose intolerant. In the milk challenge test, a subjectfasts overnight, and then the person drinks a glass of milk in themorning. After drinking the milk, nothing else is eaten or drunk forthree to five hours. If a subject experiences one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance within several hours after consuming the milk thenthe subject is lactose intolerant.

In one embodiment, a lactose intolerance diagnostic device is used todetermine if a subject is lactose intolerant. In one embodiment, adiagnostic device is a lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnairewherein a subject rates the severity of exemplary symptoms of lactoseintolerance. In one embodiment, the symptoms are rated on a scale of 0to 5, wherein 0 indicates no symptoms, 1 indicates slight symptoms, 2indicates mild symptoms, 3 indicates moderate symptoms, 4 indicatesmoderately severe symptoms, and 5 indicates severe symptoms. In oneembodiment, the symptoms include abdominal pain/cramps, bloating,flatulence, diarrhea and/or nausea/upset stomach. In one embodiment, aquestionnaire can be filled out after a lactose challenge. In anotherembodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out after a milk challenge. Inanother embodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out without achallenge. In one embodiment, a single score of 4 or 5 indicates asubject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, two or morescores of 3 or greater indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. Inanother embodiment, a score of 3 or greater for a single symptom at twodifferent timepoints indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. Inanother embodiment, a change in the average scores over time is used toevaluate the effectiveness of a treatment regimen.

In another embodiment a subject is directly tested for lactoseintolerance by biopsying the intestinal lining and measuring lactaselevels in the lining.

C. Types of Lactose Intolerance and Treatments

People can have different degrees of lactose intolerance. Lactoseintolerance can also be psychologically induced. There are also manydifferent variations of lactose intolerance depending on the subject.For example, some subjects cannot consume cheese, melted cheese, plainmilk, or warm dairy containing products like milk in coffee withoutexperiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In anotherembodiment a subject cannot consume any dairy products withoutexperiencing one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance. In someembodiment a lactose intolerant subject is limited to consuming special“lactose free” foods that have been manufactured to be free of lactose.Some examples of these “lactose free” foods are: MOCHA MIX® ice cream,TOFUTTI® ice cream and ice cream sandwiches, LACTAID® brand milk,FORMAGG™ cheese, TOFUTTI® “Better than Cream Cheese”, and margarine.

In one embodiment a subject consumes a lactase tablet to help digest thelactose in milk or a milk product. Each lactase tablet typicallyhydrolyzes up to 99% of the ingested lactose within 24 hours and isdesigned to be ingested with the lactose containing food. Other possibletechniques for dealing with lactose maldigestion are to usemicrogranules containing bioactive compounds or microorganisms (see,e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,952,021, which is herein incorporated by referencein its entirety). The use of an active lactase composition for treatmentof lactase deficiency is described in U.S. Pat. No. 3,718,739, which isherein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Digestive Advantage™Lactose Intolerance Therapy, which includes probiotics and digestiveenzymes, can also be used for dietary management of lactosemaldigestion.

D. Administration of Prebiotic Compositions

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is used in a method byadministering increasing doses of the composition to a subject who issuffering from lactose intolerance, experiencing symptoms of lactoseintolerance, or is in need of improving overall gastrointestinal (GI)health. In one embodiment the subject experiences a reduction orelimination of one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance or animprovement in overall gastrointestinal health after administration ofthe prebiotic composition. In one embodiment the prebiotic compositioncomprises GOS. In one embodiment a GOS composition can optionallycomprise digestible saccharides. In one embodiment, a GOS composition isadministered in about equal doses over a period of time to a subjectwith lactose intolerance or symptoms of lactose intolerance, or to asubject in need of improved gastrointestinal health. In one embodiment aGOS composition is administered in increasing doses, for a period oftime, to a subject with lactose intolerance or symptoms of lactoseintolerance, or to a subject in need of improved gastrointestinalhealth. In one embodiment a GOS composition is provided in any formsuitable for oral consumption, such as by a liquid, tablet, capsule, orpowdered form. In one embodiment a subject is treated with just a GOScomposition, without supplementation with a probiotic.

In another embodiment, other substances can be administered incombination with a GOS composition. In one embodiment lactose issimultaneously administered with a GOS composition. In one embodimentlactose is administered before a GOS composition (e.g., before a regimenof increasing doses of a GOS composition begins, or before a dose of aGOS composition during such a regimen). In another embodiment adigestible saccharide is administered after a dose of GOS composition(e.g., after a regimen of increasing doses of GOS compositions begins,or after a dose of GOS compositions during such a regimen). In anotherembodiment, a digestible saccharide can be administered simultaneouslywith, before, or after the administration of the GOS composition or anycombination thereof.

In another embodiment a GOS composition is supplemented with one or moreother non-digestible saccharides, such as inulin, FOS, lactulose,raffinose, stachyose, or a combination thereof. In another embodimentthe GOS composition is supplemented with one or more strains ofprobiotic bacteria. In another embodiment the GOS composition issupplemented with one or more digestible saccharides, salts, or buffers,e.g., phosphates.

In another embodiment a GOS composition is administered in combinationwith lactase, or with a product containing pre-digested lactose. Inanother embodiment a GOS composition is administered in an increasingdose, in combination with lactase or with a product containingpre-digested lactose. In another embodiment a GOS composition isadministered in an about equal doses over time, in combination withlactase or with a product containing pre-digested lactose.

In one embodiment, colonic bacteria adapt readily to undigestedcarbohydrates, such as high purity GOS compositions (e.g. GOS 95),resulting in dramatically improved lactose tolerance. In one embodimentthe GOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90%or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100%by weight). In one embodiment GOS promotes the selective growth ofbeneficial lactose-metabolizing colonic bacteria (multiple species andstrains of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli). Bifidobacteria carry outnon-hydrogen-producing lactose fermentation reactions in addition toinhibiting hydrogen-producing bacteria, such as E. coli. It is thisexcessive hydrogen production that defines lactose malabsorption andultimately is responsible for the symptoms associated with lactoseintolerance (Gibson 1994, 1995).

In another embodiment, one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance in asubject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance are decreased oreliminated by administering to the subject a GOS composition for aperiod of time. In one embodiment the administration comprisesincreasing the amounts of a GOS composition administered to a subjectover time. In another embodiment the administration comprisesadministering about equal amounts of a GOS composition to a subject overtime. In one embodiment, a symptom of lactose intolerance remainspartially, substantially, or completely eliminated or decreased inseverity in a subject for at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2months, 3 months, 4 months, 5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18months, two years, three years, four years, or five years after thetermination of treatment. In another embodiment a symptom of lactoseintolerance remains partially, substantially, or completely eliminatedor decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 years. In anotherembodiment a symptom of lactose intolerance is permanently eliminated ordecreased in severity in a subject after the termination of treatment.In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactoseintolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance byadministering to the subject increasing amounts of a GOS composition fora period of time, wherein symptoms of lactose intolerance aresubstantially eliminated for at least about one month after treatment isterminated.

In another embodiment, a symptom of lactose intolerance in a subjectexhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance is decreased or eliminated byadministering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebioticcomposition for a period of time, wherein the symptoms of lactoseintolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by an averageof about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or about 100%when compared to symptoms prior to the administration of a prebioticcomposition. An “average” decrease is a decrease as measured in a groupof subjects exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance, such as morethan about 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, or 30 subjects. In one embodiment, thedecrease in or elimination of a symptom of lactose intolerance persistsfor at least about 1 day, 1 week, 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 4 months,5 months, 6 months, 9 months, one year, 18 months, two years, threeyears, four years, or five years. In another embodiment a symptom oflactose intolerance remains partially, substantially, or completelyeliminated or decreased in severity in a subject for more than 5 yearsafter the termination of treatment. In one embodiment, the decrease orelimination of a symptom is permanent. In another embodiment, theinvention provides a method of decreasing symptoms of lactoseintolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance byadministering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebioticcomposition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by anaverage of at least about 20% and remain decreased by at least about 20%for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactoseintolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance byadministering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebioticcomposition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by anaverage of about least about 50% and remain decreased by at least about50% for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

In another embodiment, the methods herein decrease symptoms of lactoseintolerance in a subject exhibiting symptoms of lactose intolerance byadministering to the subject increasing amounts of a prebioticcomposition for a period of time, wherein one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance, measured as described herein, are decreased by anaverage of about least about 75% and remain decreased by at least about75% for at least about one month after treatment is terminated.

In one embodiment the total duration of treatment of lactose intolerancecan be from about one week to about 12 weeks, or about four weeks toabout ten weeks, or about four weeks to about eight weeks, or about sixweeks. During this period of time, the subject is started on a programof taking increasing amounts of a prebiotic composition described herein(such as a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS),optionally along with ingestion of lactose containing food products. Inone embodiment a prebiotic composition can also be administered incombination with another substance (such as a probiotic), as describedherein. In one embodiment, the total duration of treatment is about 5days to about 35 days. In one embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 7 days to about 90 days, or about 7 days to about 60days, or about 14 days to about 50 days, or about 14 days to about 40days, or about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19,20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55,56, 57, 58, 59, or 60 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 30 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 34 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 36 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 38 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 42 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 60 days. In another embodiment, the total duration oftreatment is about 90 days.

In another embodiment, the total duration of treatment is based on asubject's response to the treatment. For example, an individual canexperience a reduction in lactose intolerance symptoms after 14 days oftreatment with a prebiotic composition. In another example an individualcan experience a reduction in lactose intolerance symptoms after 30 daysof treatment with a prebiotic composition. Thus, the duration oftreatment is determined by an individual subject's response to aprebiotic composition and the onset of relief from one or more lactoseintolerance symptoms.

In one embodiment the treatment is continuous. In one embodiment, theduration of the treatment is based on a subject's symptoms of lactoseintolerance. Thus, a subject can experience symptoms at a given dose ofa prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS), and can require that the subject stay at that dose,or a lower dose, until symptoms subside. Thus, in one embodiment, theduration of the treatment is not determined at the outset, but continuesuntil the maximum dose of a prebiotic composition (such as a compositioncomprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is achieved per day, oruntil the desired level of lactose tolerance is achieved. In oneembodiment the maximum amount of prebiotic composition (e.g., acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), administeredper day is between 0.4 g and 20 g, such as about 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7,0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8,8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5,16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5, or 20 g per day. In anotherembodiment, a dose can be about 0.4 g to 6 g.

In one embodiment, a subject can be given one dose for a period of timeduring a treatment regimen and a second dose during a second period oftime during the treatment regimen. For example, a subject can beadministered one dose of prebiotic composition for a one or two weekperiod and a second dose for a subsequent one or two week period. In oneembodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS.

In one embodiment an increasing dosage of a prebiotic composition (e.g.,a composition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), can beachieved by increasing the number of doses per day of the compositionadministered, increasing the amount of a prebiotic compositionadministered per dose, or both. In one embodiment, both strategies areused. Thus, in one embodiment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), is initiallyadministered once per day, at increasing doses, for a pre-determinednumber of days. This can be followed by a period of time when aprebiotic composition is administered twice per day as a first andsecond dose. The first dose of a prebiotic composition can beadministered at a constant dose while the second dose can beadministered in increasing doses, for a pre-determined number of days.In one embodiment the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In oneembodiment, the dose can be administered to a subject at a frequency ofonce per day, twice per day, or three times per day. The number of daysof administration can last for a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20,21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74,75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days.

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition can be administered twiceper day. The first dose of the prebiotic composition (e.g., acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), can remainconstant while the second dose increase's over time. In anotherembodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising orconsisting essentially of GOS), can be administered an average of aboutonce per day, twice per day, three, four, five, six, or more than sixtimer per day, or any combination thereof. The prebiotic composition canbe administered for a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41,42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59,60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77,78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days.

In another embodiment the prebiotic composition is administered at thesame dosage level at each administration. Thus, in one embodiment, aprebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS), is initially administered once to six times per dayat the same dosage level. The prebiotic composition can be administeredfor a period of about 1 to 90 days, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45,46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81,82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days.

In one embodiment, a subject who has completed a treatment regimenconsumes dairy products at least once every 4-5 days in order tomaintain the reduction in symptoms of lactose intolerance.

In another embodiment, a subject self-administers a prebioticcomposition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially ofGOS). In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a compositioncomprising or consisting essentially of GOS), composition is supplied orrecommended by a health professional, e.g., a dietician, nutritionist,nurse, physician, or other qualified health professional. In anotherembodiment, the prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising orconsisting essentially of GOS), is administered by a health professionalor results of the program are monitored by a health professional. In oneembodiment, a prebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising orconsisting essentially of GOS), is labeled as a medical food.

In one embodiment a subject in need thereof can repeat courses oftreatment with a prebiotic composition. The course of treatment can berepeated when symptoms of lactose intolerance reappear or increase to anundesirable level. Alternatively, the course of treatment can berepeated at regular or predetermined intervals. Thus, treatment can berepeated after about one month, two months, three months, four months,six months, eight months, ten months, one year, 18 months, two years,three years, four years, five years, or more than five years, or anycombination thereof (e.g., treatment can be repeated after one year,then every two to five years thereafter). The treatment can be repeatedin the same form (e.g., duration, dosage, timing of dosage, additionalsubstances, etc.) as used in the first treatment or it can be modified.For example, treatment duration can be shortened or lengthened, dosagecan be increased more quickly or slowly or a higher or lower startingdose of a prebiotic composition, a different prebiotic composition (suchas a composition comprising inulin, FOS, lactulose, raffinose, stachyoseor combinations thereof) can be used (e.g., containing more or less ofother substances, or fewer or more substances in addition to GOS ordigestible saccharides), and the like.

In one embodiment an initial dose of a prebiotic composition isadministered to a subject in need thereof as part of a dosing regimenwith incremental increases in the dosage of the prebiotic compositionover time. The incremental increases in a prebiotic composition dosagecan be any suitable dose size. In one embodiment, the starting dose of aprebiotic composition is about 0.05 g to 4.0 g, or about 0.1 g to about3 g, or about 0.2 g to about 3.0 g, or about 0.2 g to about 2 g, orabout 0.4 g to about 1.6 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.4 g, or about 0.6g to about 1.2 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.0 g, or about 0.7 g to about0.9 g, or about 0.8 g. In another embodiment, the starting dose of aprebiotic composition is about 0.2 g to about 4.7 g, about 0.5 g toabout 8.0 g, or about 0.4 g to about 6.8 g. In one embodiment, theincremental increase in prebiotic or GOS composition dosage can vary, oreach increase can be the same, or any combination thereof. In anotherembodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to asubject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by about 0.05 gto 4.0 g, or about 0.1 g to about 3 g, or about 0.2 g to about 3.0 g, orabout 0.2 g to about 2 g, or about 0.4 g to about 1.6 g, or about 0.4 gto about 1.4 g, or about 0.6 g to about 1.2 g, or about 0.6 g to about1.0 g, or about 0.7 g to about 0.9 g, or about 0.8 g. In anotherembodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to asubject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by about 0.5 g,about 0.29 g, about 0.30 g, or about 0.42 g, about 0.43 g. In anotherembodiment, an amount of a prebiotic composition administered to asubject in need thereof can be increased incrementally by 0.1, 0.2, 0.3,0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, or 1 g per dose. The maximum dose reachedin treatment can be any suitable dose size, depending on the subjectbeing treated and the outcome desired. In one embodiment the maximumdose of a prebiotic composition administered in a single dose can beabout 1 g to about 2 g, about 3 g to about 4 g, about 5 g to about 6 g,about 6 g to about 60 g, or about 12 g to about 48 g, or about 14 g toabout 36 g, or about 16 g to about 36 g, or about 18 g to about 34 g, orabout 20 g to about 32 g, or about 22 g to about 30 g, or about 23 g toabout 29 g, or about 24 g to about 28 g, or about 25 to about 27 g, orabout 25.5 g to about 26.5 g, or about 25.5 g, 25.6 g, or 25.7 g perdose. In one embodiment the maximum dose of prebiotic compositionadministered is about 12 g per dose.

In one embodiment of the invention, an initial dose of prebioticcomposition is about 0.4 g, and the dose is increased by 0.4 g overtime, for example, daily, until a maximum dose of 20 g to 25 g of aprebiotic composition is reached. In another embodiment, the initialdose of a prebiotic composition is about 0.5 g, and the dose isincreased by 0.5 g over time, for example, daily, until a maximum of 8.0g to 15 g of prebiotic composition per day is reached.

In another embodiment, the doses of a high purity GOS composition (e.g.GOS 95) are gradually increased over 35 days beginning with 1.5 gm/dayand increasing to 15 gm/day (7.5 gm twice daily). In one embodiment theGOS composition is a high percentage composition, such as about 90% orgreater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% byweight).

A prebiotic composition can be administered in any suitable form, suchas a powder, capsules, tablets, a powder that can be dissolved in aliquid prior to consumption, or in liquid form, (e.g., GOS pre-dissolvedin a liquid). Any grade or form of prebiotics that is suitable forconsumption by the subject being treated, e.g., by a human, can be used.A prebiotic composition comprising GOS can be distributed in a syrupform. A GOS syrup can be diluted with water prior to ingestion. A GOSsyrup can be administered with a meal. In one embodiment a GOScomposition is administered to a subject in one or more capsules. In oneembodiment the GOS composition comprises a high percentage of GOS (e.g.,about 90% by weight of GOS or more). In one embodiment the one or morecapsules are 000, 00 or 0 size capsules. In one embodiment, the subjectis administered the one or more capsules at least twice a day. In oneembodiment, the subject is administered the one or more capsules for twoor more days. In one embodiment the subject is administered morecapsules on the last day than on the first day. In another embodimentthe subject is administered the same number of capsules on the last dayas on the first day.

Additional substances can be given in conjunction with a prebioticcomposition or GOS composition. These substances can enhance the actionof the increasing doses of prebiotic by, e.g., encouraging the growth ofbacteria in the gut that alleviate symptoms of lactose intolerance,increasing adhesion of probiotic or beneficial commensal bacteria, orallowing doses of probiotic bacteria to more readily pass through thestomach without being destroyed. These substances can be given prior totreatment with prebiotic, during treatment with prebiotic, aftertreatment with prebiotic, or any combination thereof. If administeredduring prebiotic treatment, they can be administered with the dose ofprebiotic being given, or before or after the dose of prebiotic, or anycombination thereof.

In one embodiment substances of use in the invention in conjunction witha prebiotic composition include a probiotic microbe(s), lactase or otherlactose digestive enzymes, or buffers (such as phosphates). One or moreof these substances can be used in combination with prebioticcomposition at any suitable time before, during, after treatment, orsome combination thereof. In one embodiment, during some or all of thetreatment, a prebiotic composition is administered in conjunction withlive bacteria. In another embodiment, during some or all of thetreatment, a prebiotic composition is administered in conjunction withlactase or other lactose digestive enzymes. In another embodiment,during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition isadministered in conjunction with a buffer (e.g., phosphates). In anotherembodiment, during some or all of the treatment, a prebiotic composition(e.g., GOS) comprises trade amounts of digestible saccharides, such aslactose, glucose or galactose. In one embodiment the trace amounts ofdigestible saccharides make up 5% by weight (such as 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%,0.5%, or 0.1%) or less of the prebiotic composition. In anotherembodiment the trace amounts of digestible saccharides make up about 20%by weight (such as about 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%,11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, or 0.1%) or less ofthe prebiotic composition.

In one embodiment, a high purity GOS composition (e.g., GOS 95) is used.In one embodiment, the dose of GOS 95 is from 1.5 g to 12 g/day (6 gBID). In one embodiment the GOS composition is a high percentagecomposition, such as about 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS by weight). In one embodiment, thedose of a high purity GOS composition is administered for 15 days or 30days. In another embodiment, a high percentage GOS composition isadministered at escalating dosages for 15 or 30 days. In one embodiment,a therapeutic dose of a high purity GOS composition is based on humanexposure-response relationship and pharmacokinetics. In one embodiment,the starting dose for a high percentage GOS composition has a lowpotential for undesirable GI adverse effects. In another embodiment, adosing regimen for a high purity GOS composition results in asteady-state exposure of the gut to GOS facilitating optimal gutmicroflora re-population.

In one embodiment, after a 15 day administration of GOS, the doses ofGOS are gradually increased over 30 days or at a more rapid rate over 15days beginning with 1.5 g-3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID);doses are in liquid form and are mixed with water and taken as directedby the dosing scheme.

In one embodiment, GOS is administered for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26,27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 or 60 days.In one embodiment, GOS is administered for about 15 days. In anotherembodiment, GOS is administered for 30 days. In another embodiment, GOSis administered for 35 days. In one embodiment, GOS is administered forabout 1-60 days about 1-30 days, about 5-25 days, about 10-20 days, orabout 12 to 18 days. In one embodiment, the prebiotic comprises GOS. Thepercent of GOS in the prebiotic composition can be about 40, 41, 42, 43,44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61,62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79,80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97,98, 99, or 100% GOS. The percent of GOS in the prebiotic composition canbe about 90-100%, about 95-100%, about 96-100%, about 97-100%, about98-100%, or about 99 to 100%. In one embodiment, the prebioticcomposition comprises at least about 95% GOS. In another embodiment, theprebiotic composition comprises at least about 96% GOS. In anotherembodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises at least about 96.8%GOS. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is GOS 95. The numberof days the doses of prebiotic composition comprising GOS can begradually increased can be about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31,32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49,50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67,68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 days. Inanother embodiment, the number of days the doses of prebioticcomposition can be gradually increased can be about 2-30 days, about2-38 days, about 10-20 days, about 20-100 days, about 20-50 days, about20-40 days, or about 20-30 days. In another embodiment, the number ofdays the doses of prebiotic composition can be increased at can be about2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, or 19 days,or about 1-20 days, about 1-15 days, or about 10-20 days. In oneembodiment, the beginning dose of prebiotic composition can about 1.5g/day to 3 g/day, about 0.1 g/day to 20 g/day, about 0.1 g/day to 15g/day, or about 0.1 g/day to 10 g/day. In another embodiment, thebeginning dose of prebiotic composition can be about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4,0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5,7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, or 10 g/day. In another embodiment, the dose ofprebiotic composition can be increased to about 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5,5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5,13, 13.5, 14, 14.5, 15, 15.5, 16, 16.5, 17, 17.5, 18, 18.5, 19, 19.5,20, 20.5, 21, 21.5, 22, 22.5, 23, 23.5, or 24 g/day. In anotherembodiment, the dose of prebiotic can be increased to about 2-24, 5-20,7-18, or 10-15 g/day. In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition canbe administered once a day, twice a day, three times a day, four times aday, five times a day, or six times a day. In one embodiment, theprebiotic composition comprising GOS is GOS 95. Examples of GOS 95dosages are shown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Examples of Dosages of GOS 95 Starting Dose Highest DoseEquivalent Dose Equivalent Dose GOS 95 Dose to GOS 60 GOS 95 Dose to GOS60 1.5 g/day 2.4 g/day 12 g/day for up  19 g/day 25 mg/kg/day 40mg/kg/day to 7 days 3.0 g/day 4.8 g/day 200 mg/kg/day 317 mg/kg/day 50mg/kg/day 80 mg/kg/day

The subject to whom the prebiotic composition can be administered caninclude, for example, a human, for example, a preterm newborn, a fullterm newborn, an infant up to one year of age, young children (e.g., 1yr to 12 yrs), teenagers, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), adults (e.g., 20-64 yrs),pregnant women, and elderly adults (65 yrs and older). The age of thesubject can be about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33,34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51,52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69,70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87,88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104,105, 106, 107, 108, 109, or 110 years. In one embodiment, the prebioticcomposition is comprises a high percentage of GOS, such as about 90% orgreater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOSby weight). In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition is GOS 95.

The subject to whom the prebiotic composition can be administered can bea pediatric subject aged birth up to the 16^(th) birthday. The pediatricsubject can be from any of the recognized pediatric age categories. Thesubject can be a neonate, aged 0-1 months; an infant, aged 1 month to 2years; a child, aged 2 to 12 years; or an adolescent, aged 12 to 16years. In one embodiment, the pediatric subject is administered a liquidformulation of the prebiotic composition, for example a GOS composition.In another embodiment the pediatric subject is administered a GOScomposition in a capsule or tablet. In one embodiment, the prebioticcomposition is comprises a high percentage of GOS, such as about 90% orgreater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOSby weight).

In another embodiment, the dose of the GOS composition (e.g. GOS 95) isgradually increased over 15 days or at a slower rate over 30 daysbeginning with 1.5-3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID) to reachthe corresponding level of lactose per day in approximately 24 ounces ofmilk. This level of 24 ounces of milk was chosen to develop tolerance toa total of three servings of dairy per day, the recommended level in theUS Dietary Guidelines to meet calcium and other nutrient needs. Inanother embodiment, subjects who are lactose intolerant and treated withGOS 95 develop tolerance. In one embodiment, developing tolerance isfrom gradually increasing the dose of GOS 95. Gradual and continuousexposure of the gut through step-wise titration of lactose-containingproducts has resulted in optimized efficacy and tolerance of theseproducts in the adaptation of colonic re-population and amelioration oflactose intolerance symptoms (Landon et al. 2006). In one embodiment,the prebiotic composition is comprises a high percentage of GOS, such asabout 90% or greater (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98,99, or 100% GOS).

In another embodiment, a high percentage GOS composition (e.g. GOS 95)is administered over a 35 day period to improve lactose metabolism viathe adaptation of intestinal bacterial metabolism in subjects who arelactose intolerant. The dose of the high percentage GOS composition canbe gradually increased over 35 days, beginning with 1.5 g/day andincreasing to 15 g/day (7.5 g/dose, twice per day). The dose of the highpercentage GOS composition can be 1.5 g/day for days 1-5, 3 g/day fordays 6-10, 6 g/day for days 11-15, 7.5 g/day (a 1.5 g dose and a 6.0 gdose) for days 16-20, 9 g/day (a 3.0 g dose and a 6.0 g dose) for days21-25, 12 g/day (two 6.0 g doses) for days 26-30, and 15 g/day (two 7.5g doses) for days 31-35. In another embodiment, an improvement inlactose tolerance would be expected to last for at least 30 days aftercessation of treatment. In one embodiment, the high percentage GOScomposition comprises about 90% or more GOS (e.g., about 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% GOS).

In one embodiment, a subject undergoes a booster program aftercompletion of the primary treatment program, which comprisesadministering a prebiotic composition comprising GOS to a subject. Thelength of a booster program can be 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35 days, or more. In one embodiment the dose of theprebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95, etc.) administeredduring the booster program can be about 0.5 g, 1 g, 1.5 g, 2 g, 2.5 g, 3g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g, 5 g, 5.5 g, 6 g, 6.5 g, 7 g, 7.5 g, 8 g, 8.5 g, 9g, 9.5 g, 10 g, 10.5 g, 11 g, 11.5 g, 12 g, 12.5 g, 13 g, 13.5 g, 14 g,14.5 g, 15 g, or more. In one embodiment, the same dose of the prebioticcomposition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95.) is administered each day of abooster program. In another embodiment, a larger dose of the prebioticcomposition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered on the finalday of a booster program than is administered on the first day. In oneembodiment, the length of a booster program can be 10 days. In anotherembodiment, about 3 g of the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g.GOS 95) is administered on days 1-5 of a booster program and about 6 gof the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) isadministered on days 6-10 of a booster program. In some embodiments, theprebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered in adosing unit, for example a gelatin capsule. The number of gelatincapsules administered each day of a booster program can be 1, 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23,24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more. A prebiotic composition can beadministered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more times a day during a booster program.In some embodiments, a prebiotic composition (e.g. a GOS composition) isadministered once per day during a booster program. In some embodiments,the prebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administeredtwice per day during a booster program. In some embodiments, theprebiotic composition comprising GOS (e.g. GOS 95) is administered onceper day for days 1-5 of a booster program and twice per day for days6-10 of a booster program.

Modulating Psychological Aversion to Dairy Products

In one embodiment a subject has a psychological aversion to theconsumption of dairy products. In one embodiment the subject'spsychological aversion is caused by the experience of one or moresymptoms of lactose intolerance when the subject consumes a dairyproduct. In one embodiment, a subject has a psychological aversion to adairy product because the subject is aware the dairy product containslactose. In another embodiment, a subject has a psychological aversionto a dairy product because the subject is aware the dairy productcontains lactose, and the subject previously personally experienced oneor more symptoms of lactose intolerance when the subject consumed thedairy product. In another embodiment, a subject has a psychologicalaversion to a dairy product because the subject is aware the dairyproduct contains lactose, and the subject is aware that a geneticallyrelated person previously experienced one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance when the genetically related person consumed the dairyproduct. In one embodiment, a method of treating psychological aversionof a subject to intake of dairy products is provided comprisingadministering a prebiotic composition to said subject. In oneembodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises, consists essentiallyof, or consists of GOS. In another embodiment the prebiotic compositioncomprises a high percentage of GOS. In another embodiment, the prebioticcomposition comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of GOS andone or more probiotics. In one embodiment, a subject does not have apsychological aversion to ingesting or consuming a prebioticcomposition. In one embodiment, a subject does not have a psychologicalaversion to ingesting or consuming GOS.

In one embodiment, a subject with a psychological aversion to dairyproducts is administered a therapeutic composition comprising,consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition tomodulate the psychological aversion to dairy products. In anotherembodiment, a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products isadministered a therapeutic composition comprising, consistingessentially of, or consisting of GOS to modulate the psychologicalaversion to dairy products. In another embodiment, a subject with apsychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeuticcomposition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of GOSand a probiotic to modulate the psychological aversion to dairyproducts. In one embodiment, the modulation is a decrease inpsychological aversion of the subject to dairy products. In anotherembodiment, the modulation of the psychological aversion can result inan increase in consumption of dairy products by the subject. In anotherembodiment, modulation of the psychological aversion can result inincreased blood calcium levels or bone density in the subject. In oneembodiment, the subject is a preterm newborn, a full term newborn, aninfant up to one year of age, a young child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), ateenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), an adult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), an elderlyadult (65 yrs and older), a pregnant women, a man or a woman. In oneembodiment, the subject is at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29,30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47,48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83,84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100,101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 1060, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114,115, 116, 117, 118, 119, or 120 years old. In one embodiment, thesubject is an elderly adult. In another embodiment, the subject hasosteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject has low bone density.In another embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult who hasosteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subject is a woman over the ageof about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 years old. Inanother embodiment, the woman is a postmenopausal woman. In anotherembodiment a subject with a psychological aversion to dairy products isadministered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, which modulatesthe subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairy products. Inanother embodiment a subject with a psychological aversion to dairyproducts is administered a therapeutic composition comprising GOS, whichreduces the subject's aversion to psychological aversion to dairyproducts. In another embodiment a subject with a psychological aversionto dairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprisingGOS, which inhibits the subject's aversion to psychological aversion todairy products. In another embodiment an a subject with a psychologicalaversion to dairy products is administered a therapeutic compositioncomprising GOS, which modulates the subject's aversion to psychologicalaversion to dairy products by decreasing one or more symptom's oflactose intolerance. In another embodiment an a subject with apsychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeuticcomposition comprising GOS, which modulates the subject's aversion topsychological aversion to dairy products by decreasing one or moresymptom's of lactose intolerance and leading to increased consumption ofdairy products by the subject. In one embodiment increased consumptionof dairy products by the subject results in increased calciumconsumption by the subject. In another embodiment increased consumptionof dairy products by the subject results increases the bone density ofthe subject.

Nutritional Deficiency

A subject that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or apsychological aversion to dairy products restricts his or her diet,which can result in a nutrition shortage and/or disease. Milk and otherlactose containing dairy products are a source of nutrients in theAmerican diet, including protein, calcium, riboflavin, vitamin A, andvitamin D. Studies have linked a sufficient daily intake of calcium andvitamin D with reduced incidence of type 2 diabetes. Intakerecommendations for calcium are provided in the Dietary ReferenceIntakes (DRIs) which were developed by the Food and Nutrition Board atthe Institute of Medicine for the National Academies. If a subjectrestricts intake of dairy products, e.g., because of lactose intoleranceor psychological aversion to dairy products, the individual can becomehypocalcemic. Hypocalcaemia is the presence of low serum calcium levelsin the blood. Long term hypocalcaemia can result in bone loss,osteoporosis, hypertension, and/or weak bone density. Other symptoms ofhypocalcaemia include petechia; oral, perioral, and acral parasthesias;carpopedal and generalized tetany; largent tetany; hyperactive tendonreflexes; laryngospasm; and cardiac arrhythmias. Petechiae are small redor purple spots on the body caused by a minor hemorrhage (i.e. brokencapillary blood vessels. Paresthesias are a tingling sensation, often inthe mouth, lips and extremities of the hands and feet. Tetany is theinvoluntary contraction of muscles, which can be caused by the inabilityof muscle fibers to depolarize due to low calcium levels in the blood.Laryngospasms are particularly dangerous form of tetany where thecontraction of laryngeal cords can result in a partial blockage of thebreathing canal. Cardiac arrhythmia, which is caused by abnormalelectrical activity in the heart, encompasses any abnormal heart beatpattern. The heart beat may be too fast, too slow, or irregularly timed.Long QT syndrome is an arrhythmia that can be acquired due tohypocalcaemia.

In one embodiment, a subject that restricts his or her intake of dairyproducts because of lactose intolerance or psychological aversion todairy products is administered a therapeutic composition comprising,consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition tomodulate the restriction of dairy products. In another embodiment, asubject that restricts his or her intake of dairy products because oflactose intolerance or psychological aversion to dairy products isadministered a therapeutic composition comprising, consistingessentially of, or consisting of a GOS to modulate the restriction ofdairy products. In another embodiment, a subject that restricts his orher intake of dairy products because of lactose intolerance orpsychological aversion to dairy products is administered a therapeuticcomposition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of aGOS and one or more probiotics to modulate restriction of dairyproducts. In one embodiment, the modulation comprises an increase inconsumption of dairy products. In one embodiment, the subject is apreterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, ayoung child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), a teenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), anadult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), an elderly adult (65 yrs and older) a pregnantwomen, a man or a woman. In one embodiment, the subject is at least 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39,40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57,58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75,76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 1060, 107, 108,109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, or 120 years old.In one embodiment, the subject is an elderly adult. In anotherembodiment, the subject has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, thesubject has low bone density. In another embodiment, the subject is anelderly adult who has osteoporosis. In another embodiment, the subjectis a woman over the age of about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110,or 120 years old. In another embodiment, the woman is a postmenopausalwoman. In another embodiment, the subject is a woman with osteoporosisover the age of about 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, or 120 yearsold. In another embodiment, the woman is postmenopausal.

Osteoporosis is a condition in which the bone mineral density (BMD) isreduced in a subject. Bone density can be determined using, e.g., dualenergy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA or DEXA), ultrasound, quantitativecomputerized tomography (CT) scanning, or single-photon absorptiometry.Bones in a subject with osteoporosis can become brittle; mild stresses,such as coughing, or falls, can result in a bone fracture. A man or awoman can have osteoporosis. Signs and symptoms of osteoporosis caninclude, e.g., back pain, loss of height over time, fracture of thevertebra, hip, wrist, or other bone, or a stooped posture. In oneembodiment a person with low bone density or osteoporosis comprises apostmenopausal woman with at least one risk factor for osteoporosis, awoman older than 65 years old, a man over 70 years old, a man betweenthe age of 50 to 70 who has at least one osteoporosis risk factor, awoman who experienced early menopause, a postmenopausal woman who hasrecently stopped taking hormone therapy, a person older than 50 with ahistory of a broken bone, or a person who takes medications, such asprednisone, aromatase inhibitors, or anti-seizure drugs, that areassociated with osteoporosis (see, e.g.,www.mayoclinic.com/health/osteoporosis/DS00128). Risk factors forosteoporosis can include, e.g., low calcium intake, tobacco use, eatingdisorders (e.g., anorexia nervosa or bulimia), sedentary lifestyle(e.g., lack of walking, running, jumping, dancing, and weightlifting),excessive alcohol consumption, long-term use of corticosteroidmedications (e.g., prednisone, cortisone, prednisolone anddexamethasone), long-term use of aromatase inhibitors, selectiveserotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), methotrexate, some anti-seizuremedications, proton-pump inhibitors, or aluminum containing antacids.Some medications have been associated with an increased risk ofosteoporosis, including, e.g., barbiturates, L-thyroxineover-replacement, depot preogesterone, gonadotropin-releasing hormoneagonist, anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin), thiazolidinediones (e.g.,rosiglitazone, inhibitors of PPARγ), and chronic lithium therapy.

Diseases and disorders can be associated with osteoporosis. Ahypogonadal state, e.g., Kallmann syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Turnersyndrome, anorexia nervosa, andropause, hyperprolactinemia, hypothalamicamenorrhea, bilateral oophorectomy (surgical removal of the ovaries),premature ovarian failure, or testosterone deficiency (e.g., andropauseor after surgical removal of the testes) can cause secondaryosteoporosis. Endocrine disorders that can induce bone loss include,e.g., acromegaly, adrenal insufficiency, Cushing's syndrome, diabetesmellitus type 1 and 2, hyperparathyroidism, hypothyroidism, andthyrotoxicosis. Reversible bone loss can also occur during lactation andpregnancy.

Malnutrition, parenteral nutrition and malabsorption can lead toosteoporosis. Nutritional and gastrointestinal disorders that canpredispose a subject to osteoporosis include, e.g., coeliac disease,Crohn's disease, lactose intolerance, severe liver disease (e.g.,primary biliary cirrhosis), and surgery (e.g., after gastrectomy,intestinal bypass surgery, or bowel resection). A subject with anadequate calcium intake can develop osteoporosis due to the inability toabsorb calcium and/or vitamin D.

Subjects with rheumatologic disorders, e.g., rheumatoid arthritis,ankylosing spondylitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and polyarticularjuvenile idiopathic arthritis are at increased risk of osteoporosis,e.g., as part of their disease or because of other risk factors (e.g.,corticosteroid therapy). Systemic diseases such as amyloidosis andsarcoidosis can also lead to osteoporosis. Renal insufficiency can leadto osteodystrophy. Hematologic disorders linked to osteoporosis caninclude, e.g., hemophilia, lymphoma, leukemia, mastocytosis, multiplemyeloma, other monoclonal gammopathies, sickle-cell disease andthalassemia.

Inherited disorders linked to osteoporosis include, e.g., Ehlers-Danlossyndrome, epidermolysis bullosa, Gaucher's disease, glycogen storagediseases, hemochromatosis, hypophosphatasia, homocystinuria,osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan syndrome, Menkes' syndrome, andporphyria,

A subject with scoliosis can have a higher risk of osteoporosis. Boneloss can be a feature of complex regional pain syndrome. Acceleratedbone loss can be found in subjects with Parkinson's disease and chronicobstructive pulmonary disease.

In one embodiment, a person that has one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products and whohas low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis,or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeuticcomposition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of aprebiotic composition to modulate restriction of dairy products. Inanother embodiment, a person that has one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance and/or a psychological aversion to dairy products and whohas low bone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis,or a risk factor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeuticcomposition comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of aGOS to modulate restriction of dairy products. In one embodiment, aperson that has one or more symptoms of lactose intolerance and/or apsychological aversion to dairy products and who has low bone density,osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a risk factor forosteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic composition comprising,consisting essentially of, or consisting of a GOS and a probiotic tomodulate the restriction of dairy products. In one embodiment, themodulation of restriction of dairy products comprises an increase indairy product consumption.

Medications that can help slow bone loss and/or maintain bone massinclude, for example, antiresorptive agents (e.g., bisphosphonates(e.g., alendronate (Fosamax), ibandronate (Boniva), risedronate(Actonel) and zoledronic acid (Reclast), estrogen analogs, selectiveestrogen receptor modulators (SERMS) (e.g., raloxifene (Evista)), andcalcitonin). Medications that can help slow bone loss and/or maintainbone mass include, for example, bone anabolic agents, e.g., teriparatide(Forteo), calcium salts, and sodium fluoride. Medications that can helpslow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass include, for example, RANKLinhibitors (e.g., denosumab), strontium ranelate, calcium, and vitaminD.

Hormone therapy, exercise, and physical therapy can be used to help slowbone loss and maintain bone mass.

In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has lowbone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a riskfactor for osteoporosis, can be administered a therapeutic compositioncomprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebioticcomposition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and one more ormedications to slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass comprising anantiresorptive agent or bone anabolic agent. In another embodiment, theprebiotic composition comprises GOS. In another embodiment, theprebiotic composition comprises GOS and further comprises a probiotic.

In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has lowbone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a riskfactor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic compositioncomprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebioticcomposition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and can undergohormone therapy, exercise, or physical therapy to slow bone loss and/ormaintain bone mass. In another embodiment, the prebiotic compositioncomprises GOS. In another embodiment, the prebiotic compositioncomprises GOS and further comprises a probiotic.

In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has lowbone density, osteoporosis, a sign or symptom of osteoporosis, or a riskfactor for osteoporosis, is administered a therapeutic compositioncomprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebioticcomposition to modulate restriction of dairy products, and can undergohormone therapy, exercise, or physical therapy and/or be administeredone or more medications to slow bone loss and/or maintain bone mass. Inanother embodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS. In anotherembodiment, the prebiotic composition comprises GOS and furthercomprises a probiotic.

Long QT syndrome (LQT) is so named because of the prolongation of the QTinterval seen on electrocardiograms of affected individuals. It iscaused by a delayed repolarization of heart muscle fibers followingcontraction and can manifest as episodes of irregular heartbeat, knownas torsade de pointes (TDP). Episodes of TDP may lead to palpitations,fainting, and sudden death. LQT has been linked to an increased risk ofsudden death during increased adrenergic states due to, for example,exercise or excitement. Several gene mutations have been identified asrisk factors for LQT. Acquired cases of LQT include drugs, hypokalemia,hypomagnesemia, and hypocalcaemia, among others. Multiple risk factorsmay interplay in precipitating TDP episodes, highlighting the importanceof combinatorial therapeutics.

Treatment for LQT involves two options: arrhythmia prevention andarrhythmia termination. Beta blockers decreases the risk of stressinduced arrhythmias and are a common treatment for LQT. Implantablecardioverter-defibrillators (ICD) can be used in conjunction withblocker treatment as a method of terminating arrhythmias when theyoccur.

In one embodiment, a person with lactose intolerance and who has long QTsyndrome is administered a therapeutic composition comprising,consisting essentially of, or consisting of a prebiotic composition tomodulate restriction of dairy products and can be treated by betablockers to prevent episodes of arrhythmia and/or implanted with an ICDto terminate or decrease the duration of TDP episodes.

E. Treatment Regimens

In one embodiment, treatment with a prebiotic composition (e.g., acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS), optionally inconjunction with a probiotic composition, one or more digestiblesaccharides, a buffer, or a combination thereof, is used in combinationwith other treatments to reduce the symptoms of lactose intolerance. Anysuitable treatment for the reduction of symptoms of lactose intolerancecan be used, e.g., the use of lactase. In another embodiment lactase isadministered before, during, or after treatment with a prebioticcomposition, or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, whensymptoms of lactose intolerance are not completely or substantiallycompletely eliminated by treatment with a prebiotic composition, lactaseis administered after prebiotic treatment is terminated. The lactase isused on an as-needed basis.

In one embodiment a subject to be treated for one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance is a human. In one embodiment the human subject is apreterm newborn, a full term newborn, an infant up to one year of age, ayoung child (e.g., 1 yr to 12 yrs), a teenager, (e.g., 13-19 yrs), anadult (e.g., 20-64 yrs), a pregnant women, an elderly adult (65 yrs andolder), a male or a female.

In some embodiments, a subject experiencing one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance is diagnosed with a lactose intolerance diagnosticdevice or test prior to or concurrently with the beginning of atreatment regimen. In one embodiment, a test for lactose intolerance isa hydrogen breath test. In the hydrogen breath test, the breath ismeasured to determine the amount of hydrogen produced after consuming ameasured amount of lactose. The amount of lactose consumed can be about1 g, 2 g, 3 g, 4 g, 5 g, 6 g, 7 g, 8 g, 9 g, 10 g, 11 g, 12 g, 13 g, 14g, 15 g, 16 g, 17 g, 18 g, 19 g, 20 g, 21 g, 22 g, 23 g, 24 g, 25 g, 26g, 27 g, 28 g, 29 g, 30 g, 31 g, 32 g, 33 g, 34 g, 35 g, 36 g, 37 g, 38g, 39 g, 40 g, or more. In one embodiment, the amount of lactoseconsumed is about 15 g. The lactose is administered by drinking alactose mixture, and the subject exhales into a vacuum-sealed collectiontube at three one hour time intervals. A high level of hydrogen in thebreath indicates an improper digestion of lactose. An increase inhydrogen breath of greater than 5 ppm, 6 ppm, 7 ppm, 8 ppm, 9 ppm, 10ppm, 11 ppm, 12 ppm, 13 ppm, 14 ppm, 15 ppm, 16 ppm, 17 ppm, 18 ppm, 19ppm, 20 ppm, 21 ppm, 22 ppm, 23 ppm, 24 ppm, 25 ppm, 26 ppm, 27 ppm, 28ppm, 29 ppm, 30 ppm, 31 ppm, 32 ppm, 33 ppm, 34 ppm, 35 ppm, 36 ppm, 37ppm, 38 ppm, 39 ppm, 40 ppm, or more can indicated a subject has lactoseintolerance. In one embodiment, an increase in hydrogen breath of 12 ppmcan indicate a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment,an increase in hydrogen breath of 15 ppm can indicate a subject haslactose intolerance. In one embodiment, an increase in hydrogen breathof greater than 20 ppm indicates a subject has lactose intolerance. Inanother embodiment, a lactose intolerance diagnostic device is a lactoseintolerance diagnostic questionnaire wherein a subject rates theseverity of exemplary symptoms of lactose intolerance. In oneembodiment, the symptoms are rated on a scale of 0 to 5, wherein 0indicates no symptoms, 1 indicates slight symptoms, 2 indicates mildsymptoms, 3 indicates moderate symptoms, 4 indicates moderately severesymptoms, and 5 indicates severe symptoms. In one embodiment, thesymptoms include abdominal pain/cramps, bloating, flatulence, diarrheaand/or nausea/upset stomach. In one embodiment, a questionnaire can befilled out after a lactose challenge. In another embodiment, aquestionnaire can be filled out after a milk challenge. In anotherembodiment, a questionnaire can be filled out without a challenge. Inone embodiment, a single score of 4 or 5 indicates a subject has lactoseintolerance. In another embodiment, two or more scores of 3 or greaterindicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, ascore of 3 or greater for a single symptom at two different timepointsindicates a subject has lactose intolerance. In another embodiment, achange in the average scores over time is used to evaluate theeffectiveness of a treatment regimen. In some embodiments, a lactoseintolerance diagnostic questionnaire is given in conjunction with ahydrogen breath test or lactose challenge with, for example, about 1 g,2 g, 3 g, 4 g, 5 g, 6 g, 7 g, 8 g, 9 g, 10 g, 11 g, 12 g, 13 g, 14 g, 15g, 16 g, 17 g, 18 g, 19 g, 20 g, 21 g, 22 g, 23 g, 24 g, 25 g, 26 g, 27g, 28 g, 29 g, 30 g, 31 g, 32 g, 33 g, 34 g, 35 g, 36 g, 37 g, 38 g, 39g, 40 g, or more of lactose consumed. In some embodiments, a lactoseintolerance diagnostic questionnaire is given in conjunction with a milkchallenge involving the consumption of about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3,3.5, 4 or more cups of milk.

In one embodiment, a treatment regimens lasts, for about 1-20 days,about 1-25 days, about 1-30 days, about 1-35 days, about 1-40 days,about 1-45 days, about 1-50 days, about 5-30 days, about 5-35 days,about 5-40 days, about 5-45 days, about 5-50 days, about 5-55 days,about 5-60 days, or about 5-90 days. In another embodiment a treatmentregimen lasts exactly or about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30,31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48,49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66,67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84,85, 86, 87, 88, 89, or 90 days. In one embodiment the amount of eachdose in a treatment regimen is constant. For example, a constant dose ofprebiotics can be administered each day to a subject for the duration ofthe treatment regimens described above. In one embodiment the dosingregimen is a constant 0.1-20 g of prebiotic per day. In anotherembodiment the dosing regimen can be an escalating regimen, for example,2 g of prebiotic on day 1 and 20 g of prebiotic on day 20. In oneembodiment the dose escalates by about 0.1 g, 0.2 g, 0.3 g, 0.4 g, 0.5g, 0.6 g, 0.7 g, 0.8 g, 0.9 g, 1.0 g, 1.1 g, 1.2 g, 1.3 g, 1.4 g, 1.5 g,1.6 g, 1.7 g, 1.8 g, 1.9 g, 2.0 g, 2.1 g, 2.2 g, 2.3 g, 2.4 g, 2.5 g,2.6 g, 2.7 g, 2.8 g, 2.9 g, 3.0 g, 3.1 g, 3.2 g, 3.3 g, 3.4 g, 3.5 g,3.6 g, 3.7 g, 3.8 g, 3.9 g, 4.0 g, 4.1 g, 4.2 g, 4.3 g, 4.4 g, 4.5 g,4.6 g, 4.7 g, 4.8 g, 4.9 g, or 5.0 g per day. The dosing regimen caninclude between 0.1 and 20 g of prebiotic per day. The regimen can alsoinclude escalating the number of doses per day, for example, 1 dose perday, 2 doses per day, 3 doses per day, 4 doses per day, 5 doses per day,6 doses per day, 7 doses per day, 8 doses per day, 9 doses per day, or10 doses per day. For example, 1 dose per day is administered on day 1,2 doses per day on day 10, and 3 doses per day on day 20 of a treatmentregimen.

In one embodiment, the treatment occurs in phases. One phase utilizes asingle administration of a prebiotic composition per day, generallythough not necessarily with food, e.g., dinner. The dose of a prebioticcomposition increases over time. For example, the dose of a prebioticcomposition can increase each day. Another phase, generally followingthe first phase, utilizes two administrations of a prebiotic compositionper day, again, generally with food, e.g., with breakfast and dinner.Again, during this phase the dose of a composition comprising aprebiotic increases over time, e.g., increasing each day. In oneembodiment, the treatment includes one phase in which a compositioncomprising a prebiotic composition is administered once per day inconjunction with a probiotic (e.g., live bacteria). This phase, if used,is generally the first phase of the method.

Optionally a probiotic microbe(s) is administered during some or all ofthe entire period of treatment. For example, in one embodiment, aprobiotic is included in a prebiotic-containing product that isadministered to a subject. Typically, during the preceding phases nodairy products are consumed. A final phase of the protocol can involvethe gradual reintroduction of dairy into the diet, either with orwithout the continuing use of the prebiotic composition used in thefirst phases of treatment. Finally, treatment is concluded and nofurther ingestion of a prebiotic composition is required.

In another embodiment the dosing regimen comprises five phases. Thefirst phase comprises administration of a prebiotic composition for twodays, optionally with a probiotic. In the second phase, a prebioticcomposition is taken with food once a day (e.g., breakfast, lunch, ordinner) for a period of about 10 to 30 days, or about 14 to 24 days, orabout 16 to 20 days, or about 18 days. In the third phase, a prebioticcomposition is taken twice a day with food (e.g., both breakfast anddinner) for another period of about 6 to 18 days, or about 8 to 16 days,or about 10 to 14 days, or about 12 days. For the fourth phase lastinganother 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 days (e.g., about 4 days) thereafter, aprebiotic composition is administered with both dinner and breakfast,along with the addition of a lactose containing product (e.g., a dairyproduct). Prior to this time, dairy products are not administered duringthe first phases, e.g., the first about 30-34 days of the regimen. Thistotal period, e.g., of approximately 38 days, can constitute the fullperiod in which a prebiotic composition is administered, but moreimportantly administered essentially in these time periods. In oneembodiment, following the actual administration of a prebioticcomposition, the regimen optionally includes a fifth phase: the actualingestion of dairy products every few days to maintain and build uptolerance to lactose, but without the administration of a prebioticcomposition (to test the establishment of lactose tolerance). If lactosetolerance is not established, the regimen can be repeated. In the firstperiod of time, through the first, roughly 18 days, the amount of aprebiotic composition administered at dinner time increases regularlyeach day. Thereafter, and in the third period, a prebiotic compositionis administered regularly each day in combination with a breakfast meal.Moreover, and for the final days, e.g., the final four days, a lactosecontaining food item, such as milk, also is regularly increased forthose 4 days.

If an initial treatment regimen is successful in generating lactosetolerance in a lactose intolerant person, and the lactose intolerancerecurs, one or more treatment regimens can be repeated.

In one embodiment, a first dose of a prebiotic composition isadministered in increasing amounts for a 6-week period. On the first andsecond days of this period, probiotic bacteria comprising one or morestrains of bacteria (e.g., in a food containing product also having alive culture bacteria) is administered with the prebiotic composition.One such food item containing live cultured bacteria is yogurt. Further,during the third phase during this 6-week period, a second dose of aprebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS) is administered, typically at breakfast time.

In one embodiment a prebiotic composition and a probiotic compositionare administered to a subject in need thereof. In one embodiment, in thefirst day of the regimen, a subject ingests 8 ounces (about 226.4 g) orless of a probiotic composition along with 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL)of a prebiotic composition, at the dinner meal. In one embodiment, asubject in need thereof will ingest 8 ounces (about 226.4 g) or less ofa probiotic composition on the first day, along with 1 tablespoon (about14.8 mL) of a prebiotic composition with dinner. On the second day, theamount of the yogurt ingested is reduced by half to 4 ounces (about113.2 g) or less of a probiotic composition, although the administrationof the a prebiotic composition remains the same. On the third day,administration of the probiotic composition is stopped, butadministration of a prebiotic composition remains at 1 tablespoon (about14.8 mL). During the 4th through the 18th days, the amount of aprebiotic composition (e.g., a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS) ingested with dinner is increased by 1 tablespoon(about 14.8 mL) each day until 16 tablespoons (about 237 mL) are reachedon the day 18.

In the third phase of the regimen, both 1 tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) ofa prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising or consistingessentially of GOS) is ingested in the morning, with breakfast, and 16tablespoons (about 237 mL) of a prebiotic composition (e.g., acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) are ingestedwith dinner. From day 16 until day 34, the same ratio of a prebioticcomposition (e.g., a composition comprising or consisting essentially ofGOS) with dinner is maintained, but the morning dose increases daily ata rate of a tablespoon (about 14.8 mL) per day. In this way, by day 34,the subject in need thereof is ingesting 32 tablespoons (about 474 mL)of a prebiotic composition (such as a composition comprising orconsisting essentially of GOS).

On day 35, ingestion of the a prebiotic composition (such as acomposition comprising or consisting essentially of GOS) is discontinuedand in place thereof, a dairy product such as milk (without prebioticcomposition) is ingested, with 9 ounces (about 255 g) of milk in themorning and an additional 9 ounces (about 255 g) in the evening. Themilk amounts are increased incrementally at a rate of an ounce (about28.3 g) per day, such that, by day 38, the subject is ingesting 12ounces (about 340 g) of milk with breakfast and an additional 12 ounces(about 340 g) of milk at dinner. Optionally, on days 39 through 42,cheese is substituted for milk.

In another embodiment the number of days in which a prebiotic orprobiotic composition is administered can vary, and the quantity of thedosages can similarly be modified according to the needs of a particularsubject and the symptoms of the subject. Even though there can bevariations in both the time period and the dosage rates, the concept ofincreasing the dosages of a prebiotic composition for specific timeperiods is maintained and encompassed by the methods herein.

In another embodiment a subject in need thereof can ingest more than 5tablespoons (about 74 mL) of a prebiotic composition by day 7. As aresult, the amount of a prebiotic composition ingested by day 7 can beincreased to 6 tablespoons (about 89 mL) on day 8. Determination ofwhether or not the subject is capable of increasing the dosage or thetime period depends on whether or not the subject encounters any adverseaffects.

The same alterations can be made in the time intervals between theadministration of a prebiotic composition and a lactose containing fooditem. Thus, if desired, the subject in need thereof could potentiallyalter the amount of a prebiotic composition every 12 hours. In likemanner, that time period could vary to 36 or even 48 hours. In oneembodiment, a prebiotic composition of the invention is administered ina powder formulation of a prebiotic composition (e.g., a compositioncomprising or consisting essentially of GOS), the latter of which can bemixed with water and administered much in the same manner as a softdrink. In one embodiment a prebiotic composition is incorporated in oneor more capsules, capsules, or gels, as indicated. In another embodimenta prebiotic composition is supplied in a liquid formulation for oraladministration.

In one embodiment a subject in need thereof is treated with a regimenusing a powdered prebiotic composition using a dosing schedule as setforth in FIG. 5, 6, or 7. For FIGS. 5 and 6, 70% GOS refers to a GOScomposition comprising 70% by weight GOS, about 20% by weight lactose,and 10% by weight digestible saccharides. In FIG. 5, a prebioticcomposition contains a GOS composition (starting at 0.5 g and increasedto 8.00 g over 34 days) with 0% by weight additional lactose. Forexample, the amount of 70% GOS composition administered can be about 0.5g, 1 g, 1.5 g, 2 g, 2.5 g, 3 g, 3.5 g, 4 g, 4.5 g, 5 g, 5.5 g, 6 g, 6.5g, 7 g, 7.5 g, or 8.0 g. In FIG. 6, a prebiotic composition contains a70% GOS composition (starting at 0.29 g and increased to 4.69 g over 34days) with additional lactose (starting at 0.33 g and increased to 5.3 gover 34 days). For example, the amount of 70% GOS compositionadministered can be about 0.29 g, 0.59 g, 0.88 g, 1.17 g, 1.46 g, 1.76g, 2.05 g, 2.34 g, 2.64 g, 2.93 g, 3.22 g, 3.52 g, 3.81 g, 4.10 g, 4.39g, or 4.69 g. In FIG. 7, the 90% GOS are a GOS composition comprising90% by weight GOS and 10% by weight digestible saccharides. In thisfigure, a prebiotic composition contains a GOS composition (starting at0.42 g and increased to 6.74 g over 34 days) with 0% by weightadditional lactose. For example, the amount of 90% GOS compositionadministered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g, 2.11 g, 2.53g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g, 5.89 g, 6.32g, or 6.74 g. In FIG. 8, the 93% GOS composition is a GOS compositioncomprising 90% by weight GOS (starting at 0.42 g and increased to 6.74 gover 34 days). For example, the amount of 93% GOS compositionadministered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g, 2.11 g, 2.53g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g, 5.89 g, 6.32g, or 6.74 g. In FIG. 9, the 95% GOS composition is a GOS compositioncomprising 95% by weight GOS. For example, the amount of 95% GOScomposition administered can be about 0.42 g, 0.84 g, 1.26 g, 1.68 g,2.11 g, 2.53 g, 2.95 g, 3.37 g, 3.79 g, 4.21 g, 4.63 g, 5.05 g, 5.47 g,5.89 g, 6.32 g, or 6.74 g. In another embodiment, a prebioticcomposition contains a GOS composition (starting at a certain amount andincreasing to a maximum amount over 34 days) with additional lactose(starting at a certain amount and increasing to a maximum amount over 34days). In one embodiment a capsule containing GOS composition powder, isadministered to a subject in need thereof. At day 34, the subject inneed thereof has completed the protocol and can now enjoy dairy productspain-free. In one embodiment, no future protocol, supplements, ormedication is needed for these subjects in need thereof to consume dairyproducts. In another embodiment, the protocol is re-administered asneeded.

In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered in a 16 dayprogram. Examples of 16 day programs are shown in Tables 7, 8, and 9.Milk can be provided to the subject after completion of the 16 dayprogram.

TABLE 7 Two examples of 16 day treatment programs. Low PM dose AM dose(g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.50 1.50 Day 2 1.50 1.50 Day 3 1.50 1.50Day 4 1.50 1.50 Day 5 1.50 1.50 Day 6 1.50 1.50 Day 7 1.50 1.50 Day 81.50 1.50 Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 11 3.00 3.00 Day 12 3.003.00 Day 13 3.00 3.00 Day 14 3.00 3.00 Day 15 3.00 3.00 Day 16 3.00 3.00 8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk HighPM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.50 1.50 Day 2 1.50 1.50Day 3 1.50 1.50 Day 4 1.50 1.50 Day 5 3.00 3.00 Day 6 3.00 3.00 Day 73.00 3.00 Day 8 3.00 3.00 Day 9 4.50 4.50 Day 10 4.50 4.50 Day 11 4.504.50 Day 12 4.50 4.50 Day 13 6.00 6.00 Day 14 6.00 6.00 Day 15 6.00 6.00Day 16 6.00 6.00  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk12 oz Milk

TABLE 8 Two examples of 16 day treatment programs. PM dose AM dose (g ofGOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 0.40 0.40 Day 2 0.80 0.80 Day 3 1.20 1.20 Day 41.60 1.60 Day 5 2.00 2.00 Day 6 2.40 2.40 Day 7 2.80 2.80 Day 8 3.203.20 Day 9 3.60 3.60 Day 10 4.00 4.00 Day 11 4.40 4.40 Day 12 4.80 4.80Day 13 5.20 5.20 Day 14 5.60 5.60 Day 15 6.00 6.00 Day 16 6.40 6.40  8oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk PM doseAM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.20 1.20 Day 2 1.20 1.20 Day 3 1.201.20 Day 4 3.00 3.00 Day 5 3.00 3.00 Day 6 3.00 3.00 Day 7 3.00 3.00 Day8 4.60 4.60 Day 9 4.60 4.60 Day 10 4.60 4.60 Day 11 4.60 4.60 Day 126.10 6.10 Day 13 6.10 6.10 Day 14 6.10 6.10 Day 15 6.10 6.10 Day 16 6.106.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

TABLE 9 Example of a 16 day treatment program PM dose AM dose (g of GOS)(g of GOS) Day 1 3.00 Day 2 3.00 Day 3 3.00 Day 4 3.00 3.00 Day 5 3.003.00 Day 6 3.00 3.00 Day 7 3.00 3.00 Day 8 4.60 4.60 Day 9 4.60 4.60 Day10 4.60 4.60 Day 11 4.60 4.60 Day 12 6.10 6.10 Day 13 6.10 6.10 Day 146.10 6.10 Day 15 6.10 6.10 Day 16 6.10 6.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 ozMilk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is administered during a30 or 34 day treatment program. Examples of 30 and 34 day treatmentprograms are shown in Tables 10, 11, and 12. Milk is provided after thetreatment program.

TABLE 10 Two examples of 30 day treatment programs. Low PM dose AM dose(g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.50 1.50 Day 2 1.50 1.50 Day 3 1.50 1.50Day 4 1.50 1.50 Day 5 1.50 1.50 Day 6 1.50 1.50 Day 7 1.50 1.50 Day 81.50 1.50 Day 9 1.50 1.50 Day 10 1.50 1.50 Day 11 1.50 1.50 Day 12 1.501.50 Day 13 1.50 1.50 Day 14 1.50 1.50 Day 15 1.50 1.50 Day 16 3.00 3.00Day 17 3.00 3.00 Day 18 3.00 3.00 Day 19 3.00 3.00 Day 20 3.00 3.00 Day21 3.00 3.00 Day 22 3.00 3.00 Day 23 3.00 3.00 Day 24 3.00 3.00 Day 253.00 3.00 Day 26 3.00 3.00 Day 27 3.00 3.00 Day 28 3.00 3.00 Day 29 3.003.00 Day 30 3.00 3.00  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 ozMilk 12 oz Milk High PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 3.00Day 2 3.00 Day 3 3.00 Day 4 3.00 3.00 Day 5 3.00 3.00 Day 6 3.00 3.00Day 7 3.00 3.00 Day 8 3.00 3.00 Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 114.60 4.60 Day 12 4.60 4.60 Day 13 4.60 4.60 Day 14 4.60 4.60 Day 15 4.604.60 Day 16 4.60 4.60 Day 17 4.60 4.60 Day 18 4.60 4.60 Day 19 4.60 4.60Day 20 4.60 4.60 Day 21 6.10 6.10 Day 22 6.10 6.10 Day 23 6.10 6.10 Day24 6.10 6.10 Day 25 6.10 6.10 Day 26 6.10 6.10 Day 27 6.10 6.10 Day 286.10 6.10 Day 29 6.10 6.10 Day 30 6.10 6.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 ozMilk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

TABLE 11 Examples of a 30 and 34 day treatment program. PM dose AM dose(g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.20 Day 2 1.20 Day 3 1.20 Day 4 1.20 Day 53.00 Day 6 3.00 Day 7 3.00 Day 8 3.00 Day 9 4.60 Day 10 4.60 Day 11 4.60Day 12 4.60 Day 13 6.10 Day 14 6.10 1.20 Day 15 6.10 1.20 Day 16 6.101.20 Day 17 6.10 1.20 Day 18 6.10 3.00 Day 19 6.10 3.00 Day 20 6.10 3.00Day 21 6.10 3.00 Day 22 6.10 4.60 Day 23 6.10 4.60 Day 24 6.10 4.60 Day25 6.10 4.60 Day 26 6.10 6.10 Day 27 6.10 6.10 Day 28 6.10 6.10 Day 296.10 6.10 Day 30 6.10 6.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 0.40Day 2 0.40 Day 3 0.40 Day 4 0.80 Day 5 1.20 Day 6 1.60 Day 7 2.00 Day 82.40 Day 9 2.80 Day 10 3.20 Day 11 3.60 Day 12 4.00 Day 13 4.40 Day 144.80 Day 15 5.20 Day 16 5.60 Day 17 6.00 Day 18 6.40 Day 19 6.40 0.40Day 20 6.40 0.80 Day 21 6.40 1.20 Day 22 6.40 1.60 Day 23 6.40 2.00 Day24 6.40 2.40 Day 25 6.40 2.80 Day 26 6.40 3.20 Day 27 6.40 3.60 Day 286.40 4.00 Day 29 6.40 4.40 Day 30 6.40 4.80 Day 31 6.40 5.20 Day 32 6.405.60 Day 33 6.40 6.00 Day 34 6.40 6.40 Day 35  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk Day36 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk Day 37 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

TABLE 12 Examples of 30 day treatment programs. PM dose AM dose (g ofGOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 1.20 1.20 Day 2 1.20 1.20 Day 3 1.20 1.20 Day 41.20 1.20 Day 5 1.20 1.20 Day 6 1.20 1.20 Day 7 1.20 1.20 Day 8 3.003.00 Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 11 3.00 3.00 Day 12 3.00 3.00Day 13 3.00 3.00 Day 14 3.00 3.00 Day 15 4.60 4.60 Day 16 4.60 4.60 Day17 4.60 4.60 Day 18 4.60 4.60 Day 19 4.60 4.60 Day 20 4.60 4.60 Day 214.60 4.60 Day 22 6.10 6.10 Day 23 6.10 6.10 Day 24 6.10 6.10 Day 25 6.106.10 Day 26 6.10 6.10 Day 27 6.10 6.10 Day 28 6.10 6.10 Day 29 6.10 6.10Day 30 6.10 6.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 12 oz Milk12 oz Milk PM dose AM dose (g of GOS) (g of GOS) Day 1 3.00 Day 2 3.00Day 3 3.00 Day 4 3.00 3.00 Day 5 3.00 3.00 Day 6 3.00 3.00 Day 7 3.003.00 Day 8 3.00 3.00 Day 9 3.00 3.00 Day 10 3.00 3.00 Day 11 4.60 4.60Day 12 4.60 4.60 Day 13 4.60 4.60 Day 14 4.60 4.60 Day 15 4.60 4.60 Day16 4.60 4.60 Day 17 4.60 4.60 Day 18 4.60 4.60 Day 19 4.60 4.60 Day 204.60 4.60 Day 21 6.10 6.10 Day 22 6.10 6.10 Day 23 6.10 6.10 Day 24 6.106.10 Day 25 6.10 6.10 Day 26 6.10 6.10 Day 27 6.10 6.10 Day 28 6.10 6.10Day 29 6.10 6.10 Day 30 6.10 6.10  8 oz Milk  8 oz Milk 10 oz Milk 10 ozMilk 12 oz Milk 12 oz Milk

In one embodiment dosages of a prebiotic are administered to a subjectin gelatin caps “00”, which can hold between 0.546-1.092 g (e.g., ofpowder); gelatin caps “0”, which can hold between 0.408-0.816 g (e.g.,of powder), and gelatin caps “#1”, which can hold between 0.300 and0.600 g (e.g. of powder). In another embodiment, approximately 3 g ofprebiotic composition is administered to a subject in three gelatin cap00 pills. In another embodiment, approximately 1.5 g of prebioticcomposition is administered two gelatin caps “00” or two gelatin caps“0.” In another embodiment, a prebiotic composition is measured using ascoop.

Variations in the doses and timing in which the prebiotic compositionsare administered can result in an effective treatment for increasingtolerance for lactose containing product. In one embodiment, thepresented doses will be tested on subjects in need thereof. Thus, whenapplying the protocol of the present invention to younger subjects inneed thereof, the weight of the subject might be a consideration. In oneembodiment, a subject weighing 50 pounds (about 22.5 kg) is administereda lower dosage of a prebiotic composition than an adult. In anotherembodiment the timing of administration of a prebiotic composition to apediatric subject can be different (e.g., once per day for 4 weeks) orthe duration of administration can be shorter or longer than theduration of administration to an adult. In one embodiment the durationof administration of a prebiotic composition to a pediatric subject isshorter than the duration of administration to an adult. In oneembodiment the duration of administration of a prebiotic composition toa pediatric subject is longer than the duration of administration to anadult.

In one embodiment the amount of a prebiotic composition administered toa subject can be proportionally adjusted based on the subject's weight.Although the doses are disclosed as being administered with breakfastand dinner, alternatively the order of the doses can be switched, or canbe administered at other times of the day with meals such as lunch orsnacks (or conceivably with no meals). The program can also be reducedinto a shortened or lengthened program. In one embodiment a program ofadministration of a prebiotic composition to a subject in need thereofcan be an abbreviated 1 week program or it can be lengthened up to a 10week program. Although the methods and compositions herein have beendescribed for use in humans, they are also capable of being administeredto other mammals.

VII. Kits

In another aspect, the invention provides kits for the treatment of thesymptoms of lactose intolerance.

The kits include a prebiotic composition in suitable packaging for useby a subject in need thereof in the treatment of one or more symptoms oflactose intolerance. Any of the compositions described herein can bepackaged in the form of a kit. A kit can contain an amount of aprebiotic composition and, optionally, other ingredients as describedherein, sufficient for an entire course of treatment, or for a portionof a course of treatment. Thus, in one embodiment, a kit includessufficient prebiotic composition for the first, second, third, fourth,fifth, and sixth weeks of treatment, or additional weeks of treatment ifused, or any combination thereof. Doses of a prebiotic composition canbe individually packaged, or the prebiotic composition can be providedin bulk, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment the individuallypackaged prebiotic composition is provided as a tablet, caplet, capsuleor container of powder. In another embodiment the prebiotic compositionis provided in a controlled release formulation. In another embodimentthe prebiotic composition is provided as a formulation with an entericcoating. Thus, in one embodiment, a kit provides, in suitable packaging,individual doses of a prebiotic composition that correspond to dosingpoints in a treatment regimen, wherein the doses are packaged in one ormore packages intended for use in the treatment of symptoms of lactoseintolerance. For example, a kit can contain doses of a prebioticcomposition, as described herein, for a treatment program, where theprebiotic composition is taken in increasing doses, so that individualpackets of a prebiotic composition are increasing in amount of aprebiotic composition contained in the packet, from lower doses intendedfor use at the start of the program to higher doses as the programprogresses. As doses are provided for later points in the program, twoor more doses per day can be provided, each in its individual packet.Each packet can be labeled to indicate the day and time of day that itis intended to be taken, or the packaging containing the packets can beso labeled, or both. A “packet,” as used in this context, is anyindividual container that contains a prebiotic composition, whether theprebiotic composition is in solid or liquid form, and includes a packetthat contains powder, tablets, or pills, or a packet that contains aliquid.

In one embodiment, the prebiotic composition can be provided in bulk ina single container, or in two, three, four, five, or more than fivecontainers (e.g., where each container contains enough of a prebioticcomposition for a particular week of a treatment program). If more thanone bulk container is provided, the bulk containers can be suitablypackaged together to provide sufficient prebiotic composition for all ora portion of a treatment protocol. The container or containers can belabeled with a label indicating information useful to the subject inneed thereof performing the treatment protocol, such as dosingschedules.

The prebiotic composition can be packaged with other suitablesubstances, such as probiotic bacteria, FOS, or buffer, as describedherein. The other substance or substances can be packaged separatelyfrom the prebiotic composition, or mixed with the prebiotic composition,or combinations thereof. Thus, in one embodiment, kits of the inventioninclude a powder or liquid containing all the ingredients intended to beused in a course of treatment or a portion of a course of treatment,e.g., a prebiotic composition and optionally a probiotic, FOS, or abuffer. In one embodiment, a prebiotic composition is packaged in onepackage or set of packages, and additional components, such as bacteria,FOS, or buffer, are packaged separately from the prebiotic composition.

Kits can further include written materials, such as instructions,expected results, testimonials, explanations, warnings, clinical data,information for health professionals, and the like. In one embodiment,the kits contain a label or other information indicating that the kit isonly for use under the direction of a health professional, such as adietician, nutritionist, nurse, physician, or other appropriate healthprofessional. In another embodiment, the kits contain or includeinformation, such as a label, designating the material within as amedical food.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a kit that includes acontainer of powder, where the powder includes a prebiotic composition,and optionally FOS, bacteria, or buffer, and a label on the containerthat indicates proper dosage and schedule of use for the powder. Thecontainer can further include scoops or other measuring or servingdevices. In one embodiment, the invention provides a kit that includes acontainer of liquid, where the liquid includes a prebiotic compositionand additionally FOS, bacteria, or buffer, and a label on the containerthat indicates proper dosage and schedule of use for the liquid. Thecontainer can further include measuring or serving devices.

VIII. Business Methods

The invention also provides business methods for marketing compositionsand methods for the treatment of the symptoms of lactose intolerance orfor overall improvement in gastrointestinal health. In one embodiment,the invention provides a method of doing business that includesmarketing a composition for the treatment of symptoms of lactoseintolerance wherein the treatment is by administering increasing dosesof a prebiotic composition according to any of the methods describedherein, optionally in combination with other substances such as FOS,lactose, bacteria, and buffers. In one embodiment, the composition ispart of a kit, as described herein. The methods can further includeproducing such compositions or kits. The marketing can be directly tothe consumer, or to suitable health professionals, or combinationsthereof. The methods of marketing used in these embodiments of theinvention include, but are not limited to, print, television, or radiocommercials, infomercials, internet advertising, testimonials, word ofmouth, telemarketing, and the like.

Also provided herein is a method of doing business such as providing aprebiotic composition as described herein to another entity thatmanufactures an already existing brand or product (such as a drink ordairy product) already available to the public. Methods encompass amethod of doing business comprising marketing a prebiotic compositionfor use with an existing brand or product (drink or dairy product),wherein the prebiotic composition, when combined with the existing brandor product, causes the existing brand or product to have the addedbeneficial effects of lactose intolerance treatment or improving overallGI health.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Clinical Trial Synopsis

A, multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trial will be conductedof a GOS composition, comprising 96% GOS by weight versus a placebo insubjects with moderate to severe symptoms on a hydrogen breath test,milk challenge, and stool bacterial analysis that are associated withlactose intolerance.

There will be two primary study objectives of the clinical trial:

1. The first primary objective will be to assess the ability of a 30 daytreatment with the GOS composition to improve lactose digestion andtolerance in 60 subjects in comparison with placebo (n=30), and todetermine if their symptoms caused by a lactose challenge during theirHydrogen Breath Test (HBT) are reduced 90 days after the end oftreatment, and to demonstrate that any effect observed at the end of the30 days persists for at least 90 days after treatment is completed.

2. The second primary objective will be to assess the safety of the GOScomposition in this population by assessing adverse events throughoutthe period the population is receiving the GOS composition or theplacebo and the population's ability to tolerate the GOS composition.This will be assessed by data collected at weekly telephone calls duringthe 30 days of treatment, and every other week calls for the next threemonths after the treatment is completed.

There will be five secondary study objectives:

1. Patient compliance will be measured by subject responses at weeklytelephone calls and by assessing the amount of the GOS composition orthe placebo the subject returns at the end of treatment when they visitthe clinic for their HBT.

2. The GOS composition and placebo groups will be compared in terms oftheir symptom scores in the presence of dairy intake (Days 35 to 90)versus their original baseline (historical) scores.

3. The duration of any improvement in symptoms reported during the HBTobserved at the end of treatment (Day 30) will be evaluated by comparingsymptom scores at the end of treatment with those obtained during theHBT three months later for the active treatment and placebo groups.

4. The effect observed at the end of treatment (Day 30) versus baselinewill be assessed by comparing the decreased scores of those on treatmentversus those on placebo, using scores obtained on a lactose challenge inthe two HBT.

5. The trial will compare the amount of dairy products ingested duringdays 35 to 90 versus baseline in the two groups, as measured from adietary sheet completed by subjects.

Study Design: This will be a parallel group trial of a 30-day course onthe GOS composition (total n=60 subjects) or a placebo (n=30 subjects)following a dosing schedule to be provided to each subject. Subjectswill be enrolled who exceed a pre-specified level of symptoms on alactose challenge test during the HBT at baseline. This test will berepeated at the end of treatment and approximately three months later.Each of three symptoms of lactose intolerance (see next paragraph) willbe assessed hourly as 0 (no symptoms); 1 (mild symptoms); 2 (moderatesymptoms); 3 (strong symptoms); and 4 (severe symptoms). Adverse eventswill be collected at weekly telephone calls for six weeks and callsevery other week for the next three months, as well as during each visitto the clinic where the HBT is conducted. Patients will be instructed toeat a fixed amount of dairy portions during days 35 to 90 (3 to 7 dairyservings per week, where the definition of a serving is defined on aninstruction sheet to be given to each subject).

Rationale for the doses to be used: The goal of this study will be todevelop tolerance in subjects who are lactose intolerant, and a primaryprinciple of developing tolerance is to gradually increase the dose ofthe drug. The doses of the GOS composition (given once daily in sachets)will be gradually increased over Days 1 to 19 to reach the level oflactose equivalent to that in an 8 ounce (about 226 g) glass of milk(one serving of dairy). During the second half of the dose titration,the sachets will contain the equivalence of 8 ounces (about 226 g) ofmilk in the PM, while a second set of the same incremental doses usedover Days 3-19 will be repeated in the AM. Once subjects receive theequivalence of 8 ounces (about 226 g) of milk twice daily, dosages willbe further increased to reach the equivalence of 12 ounces (about 340 g)of milk in both the morning and afternoon. This level of 12 ounces(about 340 g) of milk is chosen to develop tolerance to a total of threeservings of dairy per day, the recommended level in the US DietaryGuidelines to meet calcium and other nutrient needs. This approach haspreviously been used successfully in many thousands of patients. In thisclinical trial each day's dosage will be individually labeled in asachet and printed with instructions for how to take it with water.

Primary Clinical Endpoint: The severity of three symptoms of lactoseintolerance: gas, diarrhea, and “stomach pain” (any bloating, cramps orstomach pain) on ingesting 20 grams of lactose in solution will beassessed during the HBT.

To be enrolled subjects can experience one of the three following scoresduring baseline testing:

a. at least one strong or severe score (i.e., 3 or 4) on a singlesymptom on at least two time points during the six hour HBT;b. at least two moderate scores (i.e., 2 each) on a single symptom on atleast two time points during the six hour HBT; orc. at least one moderate score or greater (i.e., a 2 or more) on each oftwo symptoms on at least two time points during the six hour HBT.

However, the efficacy of the GOS composition will be assessed bycalculating the average score for subjects on the GOS composition versusthose on placebo. Scores will be based on the following rating system: 0(no symptoms); 1 (mild symptoms); 2 (moderate symptoms); 3 (strongsymptoms) and 4 (severe symptoms). Therefore the maximal score is 3(symptoms) times 6 hourly reports times 4 points maximally or 72. Thisscore will be assessed during each of the three HBT evaluations, atbaseline, within one week of completing the 30 day program and threemonths later. No distinction will be made between the importance of thethree symptoms, and there will not be any weighting of the scores basedon the specific symptom. The primary assessment of efficacy will bedetermined by comparing the decrease in the average score (baselinescore minus the score at 90 days after the end of treatment) for thosereceiving the GOS composition versus those receiving the placebo. (Seethe statistical section for additional details). The baseline scoreminus the score at the end of treatment will be a secondary measure ofefficacy.

Secondary Clinical Endpoints:

1. Symptom score of lactose intolerance collected on questionnairespresented to subjects at baseline and read over the telephone everyother week during Days 38 to 90. (Note that these scores will not beobtained during the HBT).

2. Score of the amount of hydrogen on the HBT in parts per million atthe end of the trial and three months later, as compared with the amountat baseline. Hydrogen will be measured hourly during the six hour testand the sum of the six hour production will be compared to the baselinetest.

3. Symptom scores after the lactose challenge during the HBT at the endof the 30-day treatment versus the baseline score.

4. Symptom scores after the lactose challenge during the HBT at threemonths after the treatment is completed versus the symptoms score at theend of the 30-day treatment.

Number of Subjects: A total of 90 subjects will be enrolled, 60 subjectsin the active treatment group and 30 in the placebo group. It isanticipated that three clinical trial sites will be used. The unbalancednumber of patients per group will be used to stimulate recruitment andto encourage subjects to enroll in the trial. The power of this trial isdiscussed in the statistical section. Subjects who do not complete theinitial post-treatment HBT will be replaced to obtain 60 and 30completers in the two groups.

Diagnosis of Lactose Intolerance: Patients can have symptoms of lactoseintolerance with a total score of at least 8 for any one of the threesymptoms or a total score of 16 for the three symptoms evaluated, onbeing challenged with 14 g of lactose solution during the HBT, whetheror not the HBT data for hydrogen are positive. The HBT will be conductedin the investigator's clinic or other facility and will consist of 14 gof lactose in solution, with a positive score defined at 10 parts permillion of hydrogen above the subject's baseline at anytime during thesix hour treatment. Patients with a positive HBT will be defined aslactose maldigesters. Because of the relatively large number of bothfalse positives and false negatives reported in the literature with theHBT (although it is a diagnostic tool available for lactose intolerance)it is not scientifically appropriate to only enroll patients with apositive HBT and also symptoms of lactose intolerance. Therefore, theHBT is primarily used to evaluate symptoms of lactose intolerance andnot the amount of hydrogen produced, although the latter will be used asa secondary endpoint.

Major Inclusion Criteria:

1. Subjects of either sex aged 12 years and above.

2. History of intolerance to milk and other dairy products of at leastthree months duration.

3. During the lactose challenge (during the HBT) subjects can have oneof the following ratings of their symptoms:

a. At least one score of strong or severe on any one symptom.

b. At least two scores of moderate on one symptom.

c. At least one score of moderate on each of two symptoms.

4. An HBT will also be administered to assess the amount of hydrogenproduced. Note that there is no specific score on the amount of hydrogenmeasured in the HBT required for entry, but 10 parts per million ofhydrogen above baseline is an amount that can be used to classify thepatient as a lactose maldigester.

5. Subjects can agree to refrain from all other treatments and productsused for lactose intolerance during the trial.

Duration of Treatment: 30-days on investigational treatment, followed bya HBT and a three month period to evaluate the duration of any benefit.

Dropouts: Subjects who drop out or are discontinued will not bereplaced.

Study Drug Dose and Mode of Administration: The GOS composition will beself-administered by subjects on an out-patient basis using a dosingschedule to be provided. The GOS composition will be packaged inindividual sachet packs for dilution in water. Each pack will be labeledwith the study day and time (i.e., am or pm).

Comparator Therapy: Placebo (dextrose) will be given in equal amountsand using the same dosing schedule and packaging as the GOS composition.

Subjects will be asked about symptoms and also about the amount of dairyintake at their weekly or bi-weekly telephone calls.

Criteria for Evaluation Efficacy Measures:

A five point Likert scale (severe (4), strong (3), moderate (2), mild(1) or none (0)) will be used to score each of the three cardinal signsof lactose intolerance (i.e., gas, diarrhea, and cramps). The scale willbe used following the HBT and during the bi-weekly telephone calls forthe following three months after treatment is completed (Days 35 to 90).Note that the form for cramps will indicate to the subjects that itincludes abdominal pain and bloating, which maintains the three cardinalsigns. Experts in this field state that many, if not most, patientscannot separate these three overlapping symptoms (i.e. cramp, bloating,and abdominal pain), and that it makes most sense to refer to threecardinal signs (i.e. gas, diarrhea, and cramps).

Safety Assessments:

The incidence and severity of adverse events, blood pressure, and heartrate will be assessed during the three HBTs, and adverse events will besolicited during the weekly (Days 1-30) and the bi-weekly (Days 35-90)telephone calls to subjects using a standard script that will be read tothem.

Statistical Plan:

Hydrogen production during the HBT and symptom comparisons will beevaluated according to the method of Hertzler and Savaiano (1996).

Efficacy Measures:

The primary efficacy assessment will be made by comparing changes insymptoms reported by each group during the HBT after the lactosechallenge. Secondary efficacy will be assessed by responses to symptomquestionnaires administered by telephone at bi-weekly intervals duringthe three month follow-up period. Finally, the reported amount of dairyportions ingested by subjects in each group will be compared for Days35-90.

The primary efficacy measure for this study will be the total symptomscore during the HBT lactose challenges (maximum score=72) at baseline,following treatment, and 90 days following treatment. Primary efficacywill be analyzed through a 2 group (Treatment and Control)×2 time points(baseline and 90 days after 30 days of treatment) analysis of variance(ANOVA) for alpha at 0.05. Using the results of Landon, et al. (2006),the power for this study (with 60 Treatment vs. 30 Control subjects) is95%. Note that the primary assessment of efficacy is 90 days after theend of the 30-day treatment, which will demonstrate that the effectpersists for at least three months past the time of treatment.

The secondary efficacy measure is to compare the scores of lactoseintolerance symptoms obtained during the HBT challenge conducted threemonths after treatment with scores obtained at baseline and at the endof treatment. This analysis will be conducted employing a 2 group×3 timepoints ANOVA.

Another secondary efficacy measure of bi-weekly subject reports will becomputed and charted on patient listings, but not subjected to analysissince they are based on self-reporting of symptoms under non-standardconditions.

Finally, breath hydrogen concentrations will be summed for hours 1 to 6after lactose challenge during the HBT at each of the three FIBTevaluations. These scores will also be compared using a 2 group×3 timepoints ANOVA for significant differences in mean breath hydrogenconcentrations.

Safety Measures

Summary statistics will be calculated for subject disposition,demographics, and baseline characteristics, patient compliance, bloodpressure and heart rate. All adverse events will be recorded andreported for subjects in both Treatment and Control groups. These willbe presented as lists, appropriate figures and in summary tables. AllSerious Adverse Events will be reported to regulatory agencies perregulations and guidelines.

Subjects will visit the clinic once at baseline for screening andbaseline assessments. Those who sign an informed consent and pass thelactose challenge given during HBT, and also the other screeningevaluations will be randomized and given sachets of the GOS compositionor placebo to take according to an attached sheet that labeled with eachday and time of treatment. A page of instructions will also be provided.Subjects will return to clinic (with their unused medication) for afollow-up HBT within a week of completing the 30-day treatment period. Afollow-up visit will take place approximately three months after thesecond HBT, for a lactose challenge and final HBT.

Time and Events Chart:

Subjects will be evaluated for adverse events, blood pressure and heartrate at each clinic visit. Safety with taking the GOS composition orplacebo will be evaluated weekly during the 30-day treatment period andadverse events will be assessed during biweekly telephone calls from Day35 to 90.

Dosage Schedule:

The GOS composition that will be ingested orally for 30 days using theregimen that follows the schedule to be provided at baseline aftersubjects are enrolled.

Subjects will not use any dairy products from Days 1 to 30 apart fromwhat is listed in their instructions. From Days 35 to Day 90 subjectswill be instructed to take from 3 to 7 dairy servings per week. All ofthe specific details will be presented in the full protocol.

Example 2 Study of GOS Treatment of Subjects

Subjects will take a 90% purity level GOS compound according to theschedule in Table 13. The subjects will be instructed to daily measurethe exact dosage amount in Table 13 with the scoops provided and mix thepowder in 6 to 8 ounces (about 170 to 226 g) of room temperature water.The mixtures will be stirred for 2 minutes before drinking.Alternatively, subjects will take gel capsules containing GOS. Subjectswill be instructed not to skip any doses; if dosing for a day isforgotten, subjects will be instructed to back up a day in the routineand not to double on doses. The subjects will conduct self reportedsymptom scoring before, after, and 30 days thereafter program. A likertscale scoring system will be used: 1-5 symptom rating [(1) no symptoms,(2) minor symptoms, (3) moderate symptoms, (4) strong symptoms, (5)severe symptoms)] of subject's reported gas, cramps, bloating and/ordiarrhea from dairy consumption.

TABLE 13 Dosing schedule for small study of GOS treatment of subjects.PM - AM- Dosages Dosage Day 1 0.40 Day 2 0.40 Day 3 0.40 Day 4 0.80 Day5 1.20 Day 6 1.60 Day 7 2.00 Day 8 2.40 Day 9 2.80 Day 10 3.20 Day 113.60 Day 12 4.00 Day 13 4.40 Day 14 4.80 Day 15 5.20 Day 16 5.60 Day 176.00 Day 18 6.40 Day 19 6.40 0.40 Day 20 6.40 0.80 Day 21 6.40 1.20 Day22 6.40 1.60 Day 23 6.40 2.00 Day 24 6.40 2.40 Day 25 6.40 2.80 Day 266.40 3.20 Day 27 6.40 3.60 Day 28 6.40 4.00 Day 29 6.40 4.40 Day 30 6.404.80 Day 31 6.40 5.20 Day 32 6.40 5.60 Day 33 6.40 6.00 Day 34 6.40 6.40Dosages are in grams; PM-take with evening meal; AM-take with morningmeal

Example 3 Growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium Strains in a GOSSolution

The growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains was evaluated inscratch MRS (Table 14) supplemented with either 2% glucose or 2% GOS andautomatically monitored by determining the change in absorbance (A600)as a function of the time using a FLUOStar OPTIMA microtiter platereader. The strains were incubated at 37° C. aerobically. Results areshown in FIG. 12. Some strains were grown under anaerobic conditions at37° C. and OD's were read manually over time, when indicated.

TABLE 14 Scratch MRS formula: Reagents Amount (g) per liter Proteosepeptone N3 10.0 Beef extract 10.0 Yeast extract 5.0 Polysorbate 80 1.0Ammonium citrate 2.0 Sodium acetate 5.0 Magnesium sulfate 0.1 Manganesesulfate 0.05 Dipotassium phosphate 2.0 Glucose or GOS 20

Example 4 HPLC-RI Method for Assay and Purity Analysis of a GOSComposition Syrup

The purpose of this method is to assay by area percent and purity of aGOS composition syrup by an ion exclusion isocratic method.

Preparing Samples for HPLC

An approximately 10 mg/mL TP-G28 solution is prepared, in a 50 mLvolumetric flask, by diluting 500 mg of a GOS composition syrup with0.015N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μmpolyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) filter (Whatman). The first 2 mL arediscarded; the remaining solution is collected in an HPLC vial. Anapproximately 0.19 mg/mL lactose solution is prepared, in a 100 mLvolumetric flask, by diluting 19 mg of lactose with 0.015N H₂SO₄. Thesolution is filtered using a 0.2 μm PVDF filter. The first 2 mL arediscarded; the remaining solution is collected in an high performanceliquid chromatography (HPLC) vial. An approximately 0.005 mg/mL glucosesolution is prepared, in a 100 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 5 mg oflactose with 0.015N H₂SO₄. The solution is filtered using a 0.2 μm PVDFfilter. The first 2 mL are discarded; the remaining solution iscollected in an HPLC vial. An approximately 0.11 mg/mL solution ofgalactose is prepared, in a 100 mL volumetric flask, by diluting 11.mgof lactose with 0.015N sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄). The solution is filteredusing a 0.2 μm PVDF filter. The first 2 mL are discarded; the remainingsolution is collected in an HPLC vial.

Running Samples on an HPLC Machine

An Agilent 1100 Series HPLC, equipped with a Transgenomic ICSepICE-ION-300, 300×7.8 mm column, is conditioned with 0.015N H₂SO₄ at 40°C. run at 0.4 mL/minute for 60 minutes. Prior to an analytical run,consecutive blank injections, consisting of 60 μL of 0.015N H₂SO₄, areperformed until a stable baseline is observed. For the analytical run,60 μL of prepared the GOS composition sample is injected and the columnis run at 0.4 mL/min for 30 minutes. The sample is analyzed with aWaters 2414 RI detector set to a sensitivity level of 16. The expectedretention times of the GOS composition syrup components are shown inTable 15. The HPLC chromatograph of the GOS composition can be found inFIG. 20; a zoomed in version of the GOS composition is locatedunderneath. Comparison samples were run under identical conditions. FIG.21 shows the chromatograph of a blank sample (0.015N H₂SO₄); FIG. 22shows the chromatograph of lactose; FIG. 23 shows the chromatograph ofglucose; and, FIG. 24 shows the chromatograph of galactose.

TABLE 15 Expected retention times (approximate) Species Retention TimeDiluent peak  9.3 min GOS 1/2 10.5 min GOS 3 11.2 min GOS 4 12.1 min GOS5 13.2 min Lactose 13.7 min GOS 6 14.4 min Glucose 16.2 min Galactose17.4 min Diluent peak 19.7 min

Analysis of the GOS Composition HPLC Chromatograph

Chromatographs are analyzed using Waters Empower software. GOS elutes as6 peaks; however, peaks 1 and 2 overlap. The area of all 6 GOS peaks aremeasured, divided by the total area of all non-solvent peaks, andmultiplied by 100 to determine the percent Area of the sample. Todetermine the percent impurity, the total area of allnon-GOS/non-solvent peaks is divided by the total area of the GOS peaksand multiplied by 100.

Example 5 Purification of a GOS Composition

FIGS. 13A and B illustrate HPLC chromatograms of GOS compositions of thepresent invention before (13A) and after (13B) a purification procedure.

Example 6 Comparative Growth of Bifidobacterium Species onGalactooligosaccharides

The objective of the study was to determine the ability of variousBifidobacterium species and strains to grow on galactooligosaccharides

The growth of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium strains was evaluated inscratch MRS (Table 16) supplemented with 2% of a carbohydrate solution.The carbohydrates used in the experiments were: Glucose—Fisher;Lactose—Fisher; GOS1-95% GOS purity from Inalco SPA—Provided by RitterPharmaceuticals; GOS2 —90% GOS purity from GTC—provided by RitterPharmaceuticals.

Carbohydrate stock solutions were filter sterilized and then added toeither a scratch MRS formulation (Table 16), or a semisynthetic medium(Table 17).

TABLE 16 Scratch MRS composition Reagents Amount (g) per liter Proteosepeptone N3 10.0 Beef extract 10.0 Yeast extract 5.0 Polysorbate 80 1.0Ammonium citrate 2.0 Sodium acetate 5.0 Magnesium sulfate 0.1 Manganesesulfate 0.05 Dipotassium phosphate 2.0 Carbohydrates 20

TABLE 17 Semisynthetic medium for Escherichia coli (Barrangou, R., E.Altermann, R. Hutkins, R. Cano, and T. Klaenhammer. 2003. Functional andcomparative genomic analyses of an operon involved infructooligosaccharide utilization by Lactobacillus acidophilus. Proc.Nat. Acad. Sci. USA. 100: 8957-8962). 1% bactopeptone (w/v) (Difco),0.5% yeast extract (w/v) (Difco), 0.2% dipotassium phosphate (w/v)(Fisher), 0.5% sodium acetate (w/v) (Fisher), 0.2% ammonium citrate(w/v) (Sigma), 0.02% magnesium sulfate (w/v) (Fisher), 0.005% manganesesulfate (w/v) (Fisher), 0.1% Tween 80 (v/v) (Sigma). Carbohydrates wereadded at 2%.

Culture Methods:

Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium cultures were propagated in MRS brothovernight, and then transferred once through the test medium. For growthexperiments, cultures were inoculated into the MRS scratch mediumcontaining one of the 4 carbohydrates to be examined. Growth wasmonitored either: **automatically, using a FLUOStar OPTIMA microtiterplate reader to monitor the change in absorbance (A600) as a function ofthe time. The strains were incubated at 37 C aerobically for theseexperiments; or ** manually, using a standard spectrophotometer tomonitor the change in OD600 nm over time, in 5 ml liquid culture tubes.These cultures were incubated anaerobically at 37° C. in a COY anaerobicchamber, flushed with anaerobic gas.

Species Identification:

All bifidobacterial cultures used in these experiments were confirmed bytaxonomic identification using 16S rRNA sequencing, via standard methods(Kullen, M. J., R. B. Sanozky Dawes, D. C. Crowell and T. R. Klaenhammer(2000) Use of DNA sequence of variable regions of the 16SrRNA gene forrapid and accurate identification of bacteria in the Lactobacillusacidophilus complex. J. Appl. Microbiol. 89:511-518.

Results:

FIGS. 14-19 illustrate the growth of Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM andvarious strains of Bifidobacterium and Escherichia coli over time. Keyconclusions from these data are detailed below.

First, Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM grows equally well on GOS1 (95%)as on glucose, indicating that the microbe efficiently metabolizes GOS1(95%) (FIG. 14).

Second, six different species of Bifidobacterium were examined for theirability to grow on GOS1 (95%) (FIGS. 15 & 16). The results showed thatmost strains grew on GOS1 (95%), but at rates that were slower than whengrowing on glucose. The exceptions were B. pseudolongum which grewequally well on GOS1 (95%) and glucose (FIG. 15), and B. adolescentis,which grew better on GOS1 (95%) than on glucose. The species of B.adolescentis and B. longum predominate in the feces of adult humans.(Hoover, D G. 2000. Bifidobacterium. Pp 210-217. In The Encyclopedia ofFood Microbiology. Carl Batt and P. D. Patel (Eds). Academic Press, SanDiego.

Third, five different species of Bifidobacterium were also examined fortheir comparative growth on four different carbohydrate sources;glucose, lactose, GOS1 (95%) and GOS2 (90%) (FIGS. 17 & 18). Notable inthese results was that all four of the species grew reasonably well onGOS, but in each case slightly better on GOS2 (90%), than on GOS1 (95%).This difference was attributed to the larger percentage of simplecarbohydrates present in the GOS2 sample. These contaminatingcarbohydrates would be expected to be galactose, lactose and glucose,all of which could stimulate slightly more growth from the GOS2substrate. The B. bifidum strain used in the experiments grew poorly onall carbohydrates. Surprisingly, none of the Bifidobacterium strainsused in these experiments grew on lactose, except for B. pseudolongum.It is speculated that contaminating glucose carried over from theinitial propagation cultures in standard MRS broth may have beensufficient to elicit catabolite repression of the lactose metabolicpathways during these experiments.

Fourth, three different strains of Escherichia coli were examined fortheir ability to grow on GOS1 (95%) and GOS2 (90%) (FIG. 19). Theresults show that the E. coli strains could not grow on GOS1 (95%), orin the absence of added carbohydrate (control). In contrast, all threestrains grew well on GOS2 (90%) at rates that were comparable to growthon glucose. The results indicate that the 10% contaminatingcarbohydrates (e.g. glucose, galactose, lactose) in the GOS2 (90%)sample were sufficient to stimulate growth of E. coli strains to levelsequal to free glucose. These results argue for the importance of thepurity of the GOS compound in order to promote growth of the targetedbeneficial microbes in the GI tract (e.g. lactobacilli andbifidobacteria), rather than stimulate E. coli and potentially othercoliform bacteria in the GI tract.

Example 7 Study Treatments

Doses from 1.5 g to 12 g/day (6 g BID) for this study will be selectedwith the following rationale: 1. Bracket the expected therapeutic dosebased on GOS human exposure-response relationship and pharmacokinetics,2. Select a starting dose with low potential for undesirable GI adverseeffects, 3. Allow for reasonable and meaningful dose escalation throughthe 15-day and 30-day regimens, 4. Select a dosing regimen for GOS thatwould result in a steady-state exposure of the gut to GOS facilitatingoptimal gut microflora population; and 5. Select a maximum dose that isnot expected to be associated with significant safety or tolerance risksbased on preclinical toxicology findings.

Doses of a GOS will be gradually increased over 30 days or at a morerapid rate over 15 days beginning with 1.5-3 g/day and increasing to 12g/day (6 g BID) which is equivalent to the amount of lactose found inapproximately 24 ounces of milk. This level of 24 ounces of milk waschosen to develop tolerance to a total of three servings of dairy perday, the recommended level in the US Dietary Guidelines to meet calciumand other nutrient needs.

Description

All subjects meeting entry criteria will be enrolled into a 15-day,single-blind placebo run-in phase. After successful completion of thisrun-in phase, subjects will be randomized to either a 15-day or 30-daytreatment course of GOS or placebo (PBO).

30-day dosing regimen: Approximately 12 subjects will be randomized tothe 30-day regimen with nine subjects receiving active drug and threesubjects receiving placebo.

TABLE 18 30-day Dosing Regimen Days 1-5 low dose (1.5 g) QD at dinnerDays 6-10 medium dose (3 g) QD at dinner Days 11-15 high dose (6 g) QDat dinner Days 16-20 BID dosing with low dose (1.5 g) at breakfast andcontinuing high dose (6 g) at dinner Days 21-25 BID dosing with mediumdose (3 g) at breakfast and continuing high dose (6 g) at dinner Days26-30 BID dosing high dose (6 g) at both breakfast and at dinner

15-day dosing regimen (BID dosing): Approximately 12 subjects will berandomized to the 15-day regimen with nine subjects receiving activedrug for 15 days during the dosing phase and three subjects receivingplacebo.

TABLE 19 15-day Dosing Regimen Days 1-15 placebo dosing with dinner Days16-20 low dose (1.5 g) BID with breakfast and dinner Days 21-25 mediumdose (3 g) BID with breakfast and dinner Days 26-30 high dose (6 g) BIDwith breakfast and dinner

Double-blind treatment compliance measures are to be taken at Visits 4,5, and 6 to ensure that subjects were compliant with double-blindtreatment.

Subjects are directed to bring any used and unused portions of productto each visit after the single-blind run-in phase and afterrandomization. Typically, the number of bottles issued minus the numberof bottles returned will be used to calculate the number of bottlestaken (unless the subject reports losing bottles and this loss iswell-documented).

Example 8 GOS 95 Administration

GOS 95 is administered in two dosing regimens of different durations andwill facilitate improved lactose metabolism via the adaptation ofintestinal bacterial metabolism in subjects with symptoms of lactoseintolerance.

The Hydrogen Breath Test (HBT) is utilized to determine if GOS 95facilitates lactose metabolism, thereby resulting in less hydrogenproduction following lactose challenge as compared to baseline levels.The HBT test involves administering 25 mg of lactose and determining theamount of hydrogen in the breath at periodic intervals, usually for fourto eight hours (Bhatnagar and Aggarwal 2007). Fecal bacteria levels isalso assessed. The mechanism of action of GOS 95 is determined by fecalbacterial DNA samples to assess the bacterial adaptation. Symptom reliefby regimen is captured through a validated symptom questionnaire using aLikert scale to monitor daily symptoms throughout the study.

Subjects ingest a daily (corn syrup) liquid mixed with water. Duringthis phase, all lactose-containing food products will be eliminated inorder to ensure the colon is maximally “unadapted” to lactose. Subjectscompleting the single-blind, placebo run-in phase will be randomized toeither a 15-day or a 30-day treatment phase in a 1:1 ratio. One set ofsubjects will receive placebo for 30 days; another set of subjects willreceive placebo for 15 days and GOS 95 for 15 days; another group willreceive GOS 95 for 30 days. Within each treatment group, subjects willbe randomized in a 3:1 ratio of active treatment to placebo. Subjectswill begin this phase of the study with their first 25 mg lactosechallenge and HBT with symptom scoring. The subjects will then commencedouble-blind treatment. There will be daily symptom questionnaires forthe subjects to complete each evening. Subjects will return for clinicvisits at Days 8, 15, and 30. On Day 30, subjects will have a second 25mg lactose challenge and HBT with symptom scoring.

After a 15-day single-blind placebo run-in phase, the doses of GOS aregradually increased over 30 days or at a more rapid rate over 15 daysbeginning with 1.5 g-3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID). Doseswill be in liquid form and will be mixed with water and taken asdirected by the dosing scheme.

Example 9 Specific Study Visit Procedures Screening Dairy IntoleranceQuestions

The subjects will be asked questions relating to their symptoms oflactose-intolerance. In general, the questions will be “Have you everbeen diagnosed as lactose intolerant?” and “Do you avoid milk or milkproducts because of the symptoms?” and “Do you think you are lactoseintolerant?” Answering “yes” to any of these questions satisfies one ofthe entry inclusion criteria.

Dietary Considerations

Subjects will also be counseled on dietary considerations throughout thetrial. Specifically, subjects will be asked to refrain from ingestinglactose-containing beverages/foods during the single-blind run-in phaseas well as the double-blind treatment phase of the study. Aftercompletion of Visit 5, subjects will be asked to incorporate dairyproducts into their diets from Day 30 to Day 60 as tolerated. Subjectswill be asked to maintain a daily diary to capture the type and amountof lactose-containing foods ingested during the 30-day follow-up phaseas well as the symptoms they experience.

Daily Symptom Diary

During the placebo run-in, double-blind treatment phase, and 30-dayfollow-up phase, subjects will be asked to rate their symptoms on adaily basis each evening before bedtime.

Hydrogen Breath Test (HBT)/Lactose Challenge Procedure andConsiderations

An 8-hour HBT will be done at three time-points throughout the study:Visit 3 (baseline), Visit 6 (end of treatment phase), and Visit 7(follow-up phase). A calibrated QuinTron SC machine will be used. On theevening before the hydrogen breath test, subjects will be instructed toingest their usual amounts of meat and vegetables from dinnertime untilmidnight and to ingest smaller amounts of sugar and starch (e.g., bread,pasta, cake). Subjects will be instructed to fast (only water allowed)for at least 8 hours prior to their HBT test. Subjects will be asked notto use morning mouthwash or toothpaste and to refrain from strenuousexercise on the morning of these clinic visits.

At the start of the HBT, the patient blows into an apparatus and thebreath concentration of hydrogen and methane is measured. The subjectwill then ingest a 25 mg load of lactose. Additional breath samples arecollected and analyzed for hydrogen at various time-points: 30 minutes,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 hours post-lactose load. Data will berecorded on the Case Report Forms (CRFs). The subjects will be asked toremain in the clinic during this time and shall have immediate access torestroom facilities throughout the HBT. Subjects will not be able toeat, smoke, or engage in strenuous exercise during the HBT. Sites shouldprovide water to the subjects throughout the test and should provide ameal upon completion of the test.

Lactose Symptom Scoring

During the HBT, four symptoms of lactose intolerance [abdominal pain,bloating, flatulence/gas, diarrhea/loose stools] will be assessed atmultiple time-points as 0 (no symptoms), 1 (slight symptoms), 2 (mildsymptoms), 3 (moderate symptoms), 4 (moderately severe symptoms), or 5(severe symptoms). The maximum score is 180 [Calculation: 4 (symptoms)×5(maximum score)×9 time-points].

This score will be assessed during each of the four HBT evaluations:screening, Visit 3/baseline, Visit 6/Day 30 and Visit 7/Day 60 (30-dayfollow-up). No distinction is being made between the importance of thesymptoms, and there will not be any weighting of the scores based on thespecific symptom. In addition to the total score, each of the individualsymptoms will be analyzed separately. As the expected symptoms oflactose intolerance are being induced by the HBT, they will not berecorded as adverse events.

Fecal Bacterial Assessment

Fecal samples will be collected at baseline (Visit 3), end of treatment(Visit 6) and follow-up (Visit 7). Subjects will be provided with theappropriate stool collection materials. The collection, handling processand sample analysis will be described further in the study manual.

Example 10 Study Treatments

Doses from 1.5 g to 12 g/day (6 g BID) for this study will be selectedwith the following rationale: 1. Bracket the expected therapeutic dosebased on GOS human exposure-response relationship and pharmacokinetics,2. Select a starting dose with low potential for undesirable GI adverseeffects, 3. Allow for reasonable and meaningful dose escalation throughthe 15-day and 30-day regimens, 4. Select a dosing regimen for GOS 95that would result in a steady-state exposure of the gut to GOSfacilitating optimal gut microflora population; and 5. Select a maximumdose that is not expected to be associated with significant safety ortolerance risks based on preclinical toxicology findings.

Doses of a GOS 95 will be gradually increased over 30 days or at a morerapid rate over 15 days beginning with 1.5-3 g/day and increasing to 12g/day (6 g BID) which is equivalent to the amount of lactose found inapproximately 24 ounces of milk. This level of 24 ounces of milk waschosen to develop tolerance to a total of three servings of dairy perday, the recommended level in the US Dietary Guidelines to meet calciumand other nutrient needs.

Description

All subjects meeting entry criteria will be enrolled into a 15-day,single-blind placebo run-in phase.

After successful completion of this run-in phase, subjects will berandomized to either a 15-day or 30-day treatment course of GOS 95 orplacebo (PBO).

30-day dosing regimen: Approximately 12 subjects will be randomized tothe 30-day regimen with nine subjects receiving active drug and threesubjects receiving placebo.

TABLE 20 30-day Dosing Regimen Days 1-5 low dose (1.5 g) QD at dinnerDays 6-10 medium dose (3 g) QD at dinner Days 11-15 high dose (6 g) QDat dinner Days 16-20 BID dosing with low dose (1.5 g) at breakfast andcontinuing high dose (6 g) at dinner Days 21-25 BID dosing with mediumdose (3 g) at breakfast and continuing high dose (6 g) at dinner Days26-30 BID dosing high dose (6 g) at both breakfast and at dinner

15-day dosing regimen (BID dosing): Approximately 12 subjects will berandomized to the 15-day regimen with nine subjects receiving activedrug for 15 days during the dosing phase and three subjects receivingplacebo.

TABLE 21 15-day Dosing Regimen Days 1-15 placebo dosing with dinner Days16-20 low dose (1.5 g) BID with breakfast and dinner Days 21-25 mediumdose (3 g) BID with breakfast and dinner Days 26-30 high dose (6 g) BIDwith breakfast and dinner

Administration

GOS 95 will be provided to subjects as a liquid in high-densitypolyethylene (HDPE) bottles. Each HDPE bottle will contain one dose ofInvestigational Product. Subjects will add water to the bottle to diluteGOS 95 prior to ingestion. Investigational Product will be dosed with ameal. Detailed daily instructions on proper dosing will be provided toeach subject participating in the study. Placebo comparator therapy willbe corn syrup given in equal amounts and using the same dosing scheduleand packaging as GOS 95.

Storage

GOS 95 should be kept at room temperature and out of reach of children.Bottles should be protected from extreme heat and sunlight.

Drug Accountability

Double-blind treatment compliance measures are to be taken at Visits 4,5, and 6 to ensure that subjects were compliant with double-blindtreatment.

Subjects are directed to bring any used and unused portions of productto each visit after the single-blind run-in phase and afterrandomization. Typically, the number of bottles issued minus the numberof bottles returned will be used to calculate the number of bottlestaken (unless the subject reports losing bottles and this loss iswell-documented).

Example 11 Clinical and Safety Assessments Clinical Assessments PrimaryEfficacy Endpoint

Change from baseline to Day 30 in 8-hour HBT total hydrogen production

Secondary Endpoints of Efficacy, Safety, and Tolerability

Change from baseline to Day 30 in HBT peak hydrogen production.

Change from baseline to Day 30 in HBT symptom assessment total score

Change from baseline to Day 60 in HBT symptom assessment total score

Vital signs

Clinical laboratory results

Exploratory Measures

Change from baseline to Day 30 in fecal bacteria levels.

Change from baseline to Day 30 and to Day 60 in HBT symptom assessmentindividual symptom score.

Total score and individual symptom score on daily symptom questionnaireover time.

Change from baseline to Day 30 in serial blood glucose AUC.

Correlation of individual symptom assessment scores and HBT.

Physical Examinations and Vital Sign Measurements

Subjects are expected to be in overall good health. A brief physicalexam is required at Visit 2 to ensure the subject is in good health.

Vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate) will be obtained at each visit.

12-Lead Electrocardiograms

A twelve-lead ECG will be obtained at Visit 1 to evaluate entrycriteria. Sites will use their own calibrated ECG equipment and providea print-out source documentation for each ECG obtained. The ECG will bereviewed by the Investigator prior to enrolling the subject.

Laboratory Assessments

The Investigator must assess the clinical significance of all abnormallaboratory values. All clinically significant abnormalities must becharacterized by the Investigator as treatment-related, nottreatment-related, possibly treatment related, or uncertain. Allabnormal lab values (outside lab normal ranges) judged to beclinically-significant and possibly treatment-related must be repeated.

Blood samples will be collected at Visits 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 for thechemistry test panel. The chemistry panel includes: sodium, potassium,chloride, bicarbonate, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, fasting glucose,AST, ALT, Alkaline phosphatase, bilirubin (total and direct), and CK.

Blood samples will be collected at Visits 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 forhematology test panel which includes: hemoglobin, hematocrit, whiteblood cell count (WBC), platelet count, red blood cell count (RBC), andWBC differential.

Urine samples will be collected at Visits 1 and 6. Dipstick analyseswill be done at the site and will include specific gravity, pH, protein,glucose, blood, nitrate, and leukocyte esterase. A microscopic analysis(RBCs, WBCs, epithelial cells, bacteria, yeast, casts, crystals) isrequired at a local laboratory if the dipstick results are positive forblood and/or protein.

A serum pregnancy test (B-HCG) will performed on all females with anintact uterus.

Example 12 Choice of Dose for Efficacy Studies

The dose of GOS 95 is increased over 15 days or at a slower rate over 30days beginning with 1.5-3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID) toreach the level of galacto-oligosaccharides per day in approximately 24ounces of milk. This level of 24 ounces of milk was chosen to developtolerance to a total of three servings of dairy per day, the recommendedlevel in the US Dietary Guidelines to meet calcium and other nutrientneeds. This approach has previously been used successfully with RP-L27(using lactose as the guiding modifier instead of GOS) in many thousandsof patients (Landon et al. 2006).

Doses from 1.5 g to 12 g/day (6 g BID) for the Phase 2a FIH study wereselected with the following rationale: 1) bracket the expectedtherapeutic dose based on GOS human exposure-response relationship andpharmacokinetics; 2) select a starting dose with low potential forundesirable GI adverse effects; 3) allow for reasonable and meaningfuldose escalation through the 15- and 30-day regimens; 4) select a dosingregimen for GOS 95 that would result in a steady-state exposure of thegut to GOS facilitating optimal gut microflora re-population; and 5)select a maximum dose that is not expected to be associated withsignificant safety or tolerance risks based on preclinical toxicologyfindings.

Since GOS 95 is being explored for the treatment of the symptoms oflactose intolerance in adults through the repopulation of normal andhealthy gastrointestinal flora, it is expected that this beneficialeffect on the bacterial flora will require acute administration (≦30days). The dose range (5.5-15 g/day) administered for up to 21 days inadults borders the highest dose proposed for GOS 95 (12 g/day for up to7 days).

Example 13

People with lactose intolerance have a decrease in the activity oflactase (β-galactosidase), the enzyme responsible for breaking downlactose, in the brush border membrane of the small intestine. Thisdecrease results in a demonstrated maldigestion of the sugar lactose,either with or without symptoms after ingesting dairy products such asmilk, ice cream, cheese and pizza. Lactose maldigestion is often definedmore specifically as those people with an “increase in blood glucoseconcentration of <1.12 mmol/L or breath hydrogen of >20 ppm afteringestion of 1 g/kg body weight or 50 g lactose” (de Vrese et al, 2001).The condition is primarily hereditary; however, it may also be inducedby infections, chemotherapy, reactions to penicillin, and avoidance ofdairy products for a prolonged period of time.

Lactose intolerance is a common gastrointestinal disorder that developsin lactose maldigesters when consuming too much lactose or when lactoseis added to a previously low-lactose diet. Its development is dependenton the dose of lactose consumed, gastrointestinal transit, type of dairyfood consumed, and the ability of the colon to metabolize lactose.Lactose intolerance is characterized by one or more of the cardinalsymptoms following the ingestion of lactose-containing foods includingabdominal pain/cramps, bloating, flatulence [gas] and diarrhea. Thesesymptoms arise from undigested lactose in the large intestine, where itis a fermentable substrate for the bacterial flora.

The relatively high incidence of symptoms resulting from intolerance tomilk and dairy products in various populations has been well documented(Paige and Bayless 1981; Delmont 1983; Jackson and Savaiano 2001;Buchowski et al. 2002). The FDA's Consumer Health Information on theFDA's own website (2008) states that NIH “estimates that 30 to 50million Americans are lactose intolerant.” The NIH's website contains asubstantial amount of information on this condition (NIH website).

Currently, there is no universally accepted therapy for the treatment oflactose intolerance. As such, most lactose intolerant individuals avoidthe ingestion of milk and dairy products, while others substitutenon-lactose containing products in their diet. A wide variety ofnutritional supplements are currently sold such as the once dailyprobiotic Digestive Advantage™ (Ganeden); however, they offer no provenbenefit. An oral agent, Lactaid™, is perhaps the most widely acceptedproduct and has been marketed for over 30 years to people with mild tomoderate lactose intolerance. However, Lactaid™ must be ingested priorto eating dairy, and the outcome is dependent on the dose of Lactaid™and the amount of lactose consumed, requiring as many as 5 or more pillsper day. Finally, RP-L27 (Lactagen™, Ritter Pharmaceuticals, LLC), amarketed compound consisting of lactose and lactobacillus acidophilusand fructo-oligosaccharide (FOS), is given as a powder in increasingdoses multiple times a day over 34 days.

Based on the health implications from insufficient calcium intake over alifetime, including increased risk of osteoporosis and hypertension(McCarron and Heaney 2004) and possibly cancer (Barger-Lux and Heaney1994; Consensus Conference: Optimal Calcium Intakes, NIH 1994), there isneed in the medical community for a tolerable and convenient treatmentthat allows for all levels of milk and dairy product consumption inpeople suffering from mild to severe lactose intolerance. A treatmentthat provides a simplified dosing regimen as well as the potential forextended relief from symptoms following a limited therapy regimen (ie,<30 days) would result in greater compliance and address an unmetmedical need.

Example 14 Study Drug: Directions for Use

The doses of GOS 95 (given twice daily in syrup form) are graduallyincreased over 15 days or at a slower rate over 30 days beginning with1.5-3 g/day and increasing to 12 g/day (6 g BID).

All subjects meeting entry criteria will be enrolled into a 15-day,single-blind, placebo run-in phase. After successful completion of thisrun-in phase, subjects will be randomized to either a 15-day or 30-daytreatment course of GOS 95 or placebo (PBO) in a 3:1 ratio (active:PBO).

GOS 95 will be provided orally to patients as a syrup in a bottle thatwill be diluted with water or juice prior to ingestion with a meal.Detailed daily instructions on proper dosing will be provided to eachsubject participating in the study. Placebo comparator therapy will bedextrose given in equal amounts and using the same dosing schedule andpackaging as GOS 95.

30-Day Dosing Regimen:

Approximately 12 subjects will be randomized to the 30-day regimen with9 subjects receiving active drug and 3 subjects receiving placebo.

Days 1-5: placebo dosing with breakfast; low dose (1.5 grams) QD atdinner

Days 6-10: placebo dosing with breakfast; medium dose (3 grams) QD atdinner

Days 11-15: placebo dosing with breakfast; high dose (6 grams) QD atdinner

Days 16-20: BID dosing with low dose (1.5 grams) at breakfast andcontinuing high dose (6 grams) at dinner

Days 21-25: BID dosing with medium dose (3 grams) at breakfast andcontinuing high dose (6 grams) at dinner

Days 26-30: BID dosing high dose (6 grams) at both breakfast and atdinner

15-Day Dosing Regimen (BID Dosing):

Approximately 12 subjects will be randomized to the 15-day regimen with9 subjects receiving active drug and 3 subjects receiving placebo.

Days 1-15: placebo dosing BID with breakfast and dinner

Days 16-20: low dose (1.5 grams) BID with breakfast and dinner

Days 21-25: medium dose (3 grams) BID with breakfast and dinner

Days 26-30: high dose (6 grams) BID with breakfast and dinner

Example 15 Phase 2 Proof-of-Concept Study Design

This study is designed to assess the ability of RP-G28, a high purityGOS composition also known as GOS 95, to rapidly and effectively modifyintestinal metabolism to improve lactose digestion and tolerance. Thestudy design includes a Screening phase (with an optional 25 gm lactosechallenge for symptom assessment), a 15-day single-blind, Placebo Run-inphase, a 35-day double-blind, placebo-controlled Treatment phase, and a30-day post-treatment Follow-up period. A 25 gm lactose challenge with6-hour hydrogen breath test (HBT) will be conducted after thesingle-blind placebo Run-in (baseline), after 35 days of treatment (Day36), and 30 days after treatment in follow-up (Day 66). Lactose will berestricted during the single-blind Placebo Run-in and during thedouble-blind 35-day Treatment period. Subjects will be instructedregarding lactose exposure following the 35-day Treatment period.Symptoms will be assessed during each lactose challenge and duringfollow-up for 30 days after treatment. Approximately 100 male and femalesubjects with symptoms of lactose intolerance may be enrolled at up tofive investigative sites, to complete approximately 66 subjects throughVisit 6 (end of double-blind Treatment).

This Phase 2 proof of concept study will include four distinct phases,outlined in FIG. 25: a 15 day Screening Phase (Day −30 to Day −16), a 15day placebo run-in (Day −15 to Day −1), a 35 day double blind treatment(Day 1 to Day 35, and a 30 day follow-up (Day 36 to Day 66).

Example 15A Screening Phase

Subjects must meet all of the following inclusion criteria to beeligible for enrollment into the study:

1. Non-smoking males and females. Female subjects must be non-pregnant,and non-lactating. Female subjects and female sexual partners of malesubjects, if of child-bearing potential, must use adequate birth controlduring study participation.

2. 18 to 64 years of age inclusive at Screening

3. Current or recent history of intolerance to milk and other dairyproducts of at least one month duration (by self-reported symptoms)

4. Baseline [Visit 3] lactose challenge symptom score (4 symptomcategories with severity measured from 0 to 5) as defined by one of thefollowing:

-   -   a. At least one score of 4 (moderately severe) or 5 (severe) on        a single symptom during the 6-hour HBT test;    -   b. A score of 3 (moderate) or greater for a single symptom on at        least two (2) time-points during the 6-hour HBT test; or    -   c. At least one 3 (moderate) score or greater on each of two        symptoms during the 6-hour HBT test.

5. Baseline [Visit 3] lactose challenge HBT of at least 20 parts permillion greater than baseline [25-gm lactose load] on at least 2 timesduring the 6-hour HBT

6. Subjects must agree to refrain from all other treatments and productsused for lactose intolerance (e.g., Lactaid® Dietary Supplements) duringthe trial, including the follow-up period

7. Subjects must agree to refrain from dairy products during certainportions of the trial and be willing to ingest dairy products asrequired by the protocol

8. Subjects must be willing to return for all clinic visits and completeall study-related procedures, including fasting before and during theHBT test

9. Subjects must be verbally fluent and able to provide written informedconsent in English

Subjects presenting with any of the following will not be included inthe study:

1. Disorders known to be associated with abnormal gastrointestinalmotility such as: gastroparesis, amyloidosis, neuromuscular diseases(including Parkinson's disease), collagen vascular diseases, alcoholism,uremia, malnutrition, or untreated hypothyroidism

2. History of surgery that alters the normal function of thegastrointestinal tract including, but not limited to: gastrointestinalbypass surgery, bariatric surgery, gastric banding, vagotomy,fundoplication, pyloroplasty [Note: history of uncomplicated abdominalsurgeries such as removal of an appendix more than 12 months prior toScreening will not be excluded]

3. Past or present: Organ transplant, chronic pancreatitis, pancreaticinsufficiency, symptomatic biliary disease, Celiac disease, chronicconstipation, diverticulosis, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD),ulcerative colitis (UC), Crohn's disease (CD), small intestine bacterialovergrowth syndrome (SIBO)

4. Past or present: Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

5. Active gastric or duodenal ulcers, or history of severe ulcers

6. Diabetes mellitus (type 1 and type 2)

7. Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)

8. History of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), Hepatitis B orHepatitis C

9. BMI >35 kg/m²; candidates with a BMI between 35 and 40 kg/m² may beconsidered on a case by case basis and enrolled with approval of theMedical Monitor

10. Recent bowel preparation for endoscopic or radiologic investigationwithin 4 weeks of Screening (e.g., colonoscopy prep)

11. Use of concurrent therapy(ies) considered as possibly interferingwith RP-G28 or other products (e.g., laxatives, stool softeners,Pepto-Bismol™, Lactaid® Dietary Supplements) used for symptoms oflactose intolerance within 7 days of Screening

12. Recent use of systemic antibiotics or recent high colonic enema,defined as use within 30 days prior to Screening; bowel patterns musthave returned to normal following antibiotic use

13. Any concurrent disease or symptoms which may interfere with theassessment of the cardinal symptoms of lactose intolerance (i.e.,abdominal pain [cramps], bloating, flatulence [gas], diarrhea [loosestools]

14. Resting 12-lead ECG showing QTcF >450 msec (males) or QTcF >470 msec(females), any tachyarrhythmia, pathologic Q waves, significant sinusbradycardia (<40 beats per minute (bpm) or any other clinicallysignificant abnormality

15. Uncontrolled BP defined as the mean sitting systolic blood pressure(SBP ≧160 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure (DBP)≧95 mmHg at Visit 2

-   -   a. Hypertensive medication(s) may be modified or added during        the Screening phase in consideration of this criterion    -   b. Repeat BP measurements during Screening are permissible if        the subject is otherwise qualified

16. History of ethanol abuse in the past 12 months defined as three ormore alcoholic beverages per day; history of drug abuse within 12 monthsprior to Screening

17. Cigarette smoking or other use of tobacco or nicotine containingproducts within 3 months of Screening

18. History or presence of malignancy within the past 5 years with theexception of a basal cell or squamous cell carcinoma successfullyremoved from a sun-exposed area of the body

19. Use of any investigational drug or participation in anyinvestigational study within 30 days prior to Screening

20. Conjugated bilirubin greater than 1.2× upper limit of normal unlessapproved by the Medical Monitor; creatinine ≧2.0 mg/dL; AST (SGOT) orALT (SGPT)>2× the upper limit of normal; alkaline phosphatase >1.5× theupper limit of normal; or hemoglobin <11 g/dL (<110 g/L)

21. Any condition, disease, disorder (including personality disorders),or clinically relevant lab abnormality which, in the opinion of theInvestigator and/or the Medical Monitor, would jeopardize the subject'sparticipation in this study, obscure the effects of treatment or lead tonon-compliance/non-cooperation in the study

22. In the opinion of the Investigator and/or the Medical Monitor, anyserious uncontrolled disorders including: pulmonary, cardiovascular,hematologic, renal, endocrine, neurological, immunosuppressive,urogenital or dermatologic diseases that would jeopardize the safety ofthe subject or impact the validity of the study results

23. Allergy to galacto-oligosaccharides or a component of the study drugor placebo

24. History of fructose intolerance or fructose maldigestion

25. Prior enrollment in this study

At the screening visit (Visit 1) subjects will give informed consent anda detailed medical history will be taken. At this time, subjects will beevaluated according the entry criteria detailed supra. Additionally,subjects will be asked questions relating to their symptoms of lactoseintolerance. In general, the questions will be “Have you ever beendiagnosed as lactose intolerant?” and “Do you avoid milk or milkproducts because of the symptoms?” and “Do you think you are lactoseintolerant?” If these symptoms have been present for more than onemonth, answering “yes” to any of these questions satisfies one of theentry inclusion criteria. Vital signs (blood pressure, heart rate),weight, and height will be measured for each subject and a 12-leadelectrocardiogram will be taken to ensure subjects are in good overallhealth. Chemistry and hematology labs will be run, as well as aurinalysis (dipstick) at this visit. Additionally, pregnancy screeningswill be performed, if appropriate.

Subjects may be provided the opportunity to take part in an optionalpre-screening lactose challenge. After obtaining informed consent(separate document) for this optional study phase, subjects will undergoa fasting lactose challenge with 25-gm of lactose. Informed consent maybe obtained under non-fasting conditions prior to scheduling the lactosechallenge, which shall be done under fasting conditions.

Subjects participating in the optional challenge will be interviewedregarding symptoms observed over a 6-hour period after administration ofthe lactose challenge dose. The interviews will be performed by trainedMapi Values interviewers according to instructions and scripts found inFIGS. 26-29. After the subjects report symptoms, they will be asked torate the severity of these symptoms using a questionnaire like the onein FIG. 30. These symptoms and the severity ratings will be collectedand analyzed by trained staff as the basis for the development of aPatient-Reported Outcome (PRO) measure to assess symptoms of lactoseintolerance.

Subjects reporting no symptoms or only symptoms of “slight” or “mild”severity during the lactose challenge will not be eligible for anyfurther study participation.

Subjects reporting symptoms of “moderate” severity or greater during thelactose challenge and who wish to further participate may proceed withScreening procedures for the study. Although the “pre-screening” lactosechallenge may precede or be combined with and overlap Screeningprocedures a separate informed consent will be obtained prior toScreening procedures.

Note: Subjects with a positive hydrogen breath test (H₂ levels ≧20 ppmabove baseline at two or more time-points) at Visit 3 will have theirlactose challenge symptoms included in the development of the PROmeasure. Subjects with negative HBT results (Hz levels <20 ppm abovebaseline) will not contribute symptom data for PRO instrumentdevelopment.

Example 15B Single Blind Placebo Run-in

All subjects who qualify at the Screening visit will be assigned to a15-day single-blind, placebo Run-in phase. This phase begins on Day −15with Visit 2. During this visit, subjects are given a physical exam, aurine drug screen, and recordings are made of vital signs, weight andheight. At this time, subjects are counseled on dietary considerationsthroughout the trial. Specifically, subjects will be asked to refrainfrom ingesting lactose-containing beverages/foods during the PlaceboRun-in following Visit 2 as well as during the Treatment phase of thestudy through completion of Visit 6. During the placebo run-in, andthroughout the 35 day treatment regimen, subjects will be asked to keepa daily symptom diary. An example of the diary can be found in FIG. 31.The placebo run-in period ends with Visit 3, during which a hydrogenbreath test (HBT)/lactose challenge is performed, a lactose symptomquestionnaire is filled out and fecal samples are taken to determinebacterial levels.

Hydrogen Breath Test (HBT)/Lactose Challenge Procedure andConsiderations

A 6-hour HBT will be done at three time-points during the study: Visit 3(Baseline), Visit 6 (End of Study), and Visit 7 (Follow-up). Each HBTwill be conducted using a calibrated device provided by the sponsor.

On the evening before the HBT, subjects will be instructed regardingdinner restrictions, particularly sugar, carbohydrate, and fiber.Subjects will be instructed to fast (only water allowed) for at least 8hours prior to their HBT test. Subjects will be asked not to usemouthwash or toothpaste and to refrain from strenuous exercise on theevening before and the morning of these clinic visits.

At the start of the HBT, the patient blows into an apparatus and thebreath concentration of hydrogen and methane is measured. The subjectwill then ingest, a 25-gm load of lactose. Additional breath samples arecollected and analyzed for hydrogen and methane at the followingtime-points: 30 minutes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 hours post-lactose load.Hydrogen and methane data will be recorded in the source document and onthe case report forms (CRFs). The subjects will be asked to remain inthe clinic during this time and shall have immediate access to restroomfacilities throughout the HBT. Subjects will not be able to eat, smoke,sleep, or engage in strenuous exercise during the HBT. Sites shouldprovide water to the subjects throughout the test and should provide ameal upon completion of the test.

Total hydrogen production is calculated as the sum of the hydrogen levelin ppm above baseline at each hour for 6 hours following lactosechallenge.

Lactose Symptom Scoring

During the HBT, four symptoms of lactose intolerance (abdominal pain[cramps], bloating, flatulence [gas], diarrhea [loose stools]) will beinquired before the lactose is administered and assessed hourly for 6hours following the lactose challenge. Symptoms are rated as 0 (nosymptoms), 1 (slight symptoms), 2 (mild symptoms), 3 (moderatesymptoms), 4 (moderately severe symptoms), or 5 (severe symptoms). Thetotal of the hourly scores after the lactose challenge will be used toassess treatment effect. The total score can range from 0 to 160.

This score will be assessed during each of the three FIBT evaluations:Visit 3/Baseline, Visit 6/Day 36 and Visit 7/Day 66 (30-day Follow-up).As the expected symptoms of lactose intolerance are being induced by thelactose challenge, they will not be recorded as adverse events unlessthe event meets the criteria for an SAE.

During the HBT, the occurrence and severity of nausea [upset stomach]will be captured and rated using the same symptom score scale of 0 (nosymptoms), 1 (slight symptoms), 2 (mild symptoms), 3 (moderatesymptoms), 4 (moderately severe symptoms), or 5 (severe symptoms).

Fecal Bacterial Assessment

Fecal samples will be collected at Baseline (Visit 3), End of Study(Visit 6) and Follow-up (Visit 7). Subjects will be provided with theappropriate stool collection materials. Stool samples may be collectedfor analysis any time before or during the lactose challenge. Thecollection, handling process and sample analysis will be describedfurther in the study manual.

Example 15C Double Blind Study Treatments

Subjects who qualify after the baseline lactose challenge, HBT andsymptom assessment will be randomized to 35 days of double-blindTreatment in a 2:1 ratio to RP-G28 or placebo. The doses of RP-G28 aregradually increased over 35 days beginning with 1.5 gm/day andincreasing to 15 gm/day (7.5 gm twice daily), which is equivalent to theamount of lactose found in approximately 24 ounces of milk. Thisquantity of milk was chosen to develop tolerance to a total of threeservings of dairy per day, the recommended level in the US, per theSixth edition of Dietary Guidelines for Americans in January 2005 tomeet calcium and other nutrient needs. Doses are in liquid form and willbe mixed with water and taken as directed by the dosing scheme in Table22. Doses from 1.5 gm/day to 15 gm/day (7.5 gm BID) for this Phase 2study were selected with the following rationale:

-   1. Bracket the expected therapeutic dose based on GOS human    exposure-response relationship and pharmacokinetics,-   2. Select a starting dose with low potential for undesirable GI    adverse effects from published GOS clinical data,-   3. Allow for reasonable and meaningful dose escalation through the    35-day regimen,-   4. Select a dosing regimen for RP-G28 that would result in a    steady-state exposure of the gut to GOS facilitating optimal gut    microflora population; and-   5. Select a maximum dose that is not expected to be associated with    significant safety or tolerance risks based on preclinical    toxicology findings and the composite of published clinical data    with GOS.

TABLE 22 35-Day Dosing Regimen Treatment Dose Treatment Days (RP-G28 orPlacebo) Days 1-5 1.5 g at dinner Days 6-10 3 g at dinner Days 11-15 6 gat dinner Days 16-20 1.5 g at breakfast 6 g at dinner Days 21-25 3 g atbreakfast 6 g at dinner Days 26-30 6 g at breakfast 6 g at dinner Days31-35 7.5 g at breakfast 7.5 g at dinner

The placebo will be corn syrup with a similar consistency and sweetnessto the RP-G28. Treatment doses will be provided to the subjects inhigh-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles with detailed dailyinstructions regarding proper dosing. The daily dose will be dilutedwith water and taken with the indicated meal.

At Day 8 and Day 17, Visits 4 and 5 are conducted. Vital signs, height,and weight are recorded. The daily symptom diaries are returned,investigations products are returned/distributed, and any adverse eventsare assessed. The amount of product returned is one measure of subjectcompliance.

At the end of the double blind treatment period, Visit 6 is conducted.During this visit, a second physical exam in performed on the subjects.Labs, including chemistry and hematology panels, are run and dipstickurinalysis is performed. Vital signs and subject height and weight arerecorded. As at Visit 3, a hydrogen breath test (HBT)/lactose challengeis performed, a lactose symptom questionnaire is filled out and fecalsamples are taken to determine bacterial levels.

Example 15D 30-Day Follow Up

After completion of Visit 6, subjects will be asked to incorporate dairyproducts into their diets from Day 37 to Day 66, as tolerated. Subjectswill also be asked to complete a daily symptom diary, such as the onefound in FIG. 32. The final visit (Visit 7) occurs at the end of the30-day follow up period. At this time, subjects are asked the screeningdairy intolerance questions and the daily symptom diaries are returned.Additionally, as a Visits 3 and 6, a hydrogen breath test (HBT)/lactosechallenge is performed, a lactose symptom questionnaire is filled outand fecal samples are taken to determine bacterial levels.

Example 15E Clinical Assessments Primary Efficacy Endpoints

Baseline values for total 6-hour hydrogen breath test (HBT) totalhydrogen production and HBT symptom assessment total score duringlactose challenge are determined prior to the 35 day course of treatment(Day 0/Visit 3). Primary efficacy endpoints of the study are a change inthese values at the end of a 35 day course of treatment (Day 36/Visit6).

Secondary Efficacy Endpoints

Secondary efficacy endpoints include a change from baseline to Day 36 in6-hour HBT peak hydrogen production; a change from baseline to Day 66 in6-hour HBT peak hydrogen production; a change from baseline to Day 66 in6-hour HBT total hydrogen production; a change from baseline to Day 66in HBT symptom assessment total score during lactose challenge; a changefrom baseline to Day 36 in fecal bacteria measurements; a change frombaseline to Day 66 in fecal bacteria measurements; and changes in dairyconsumption amounts, total score, and individual symptom scores on dailysymptom questionnaires over time.

While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown anddescribed herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art thatsuch embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerousvariations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilledin the art without departing from the invention. It should be understoodthat various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention describedherein can be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended thatthe following claims define the scope of the invention and that methodsand structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents becovered thereby.

1. A method of treating lactose intolerance in a subject experiencingone or more symptoms of lactose intolerance comprising administering apharmaceutical composition to said subject, wherein at least about 95%of said pharmaceutical composition is GOS, wherein said subject isadministered between 1.5 and 15 g of said pharmaceutical composition perday.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said composition is provided in adosing unit.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein said dosing unit is acapsule, tablet, softgel, ephervescant tablet, or lozenge.
 4. The methodof claim 2, wherein said dosing unit further comprises an entericcoating.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein said composition does notcomprise a probiotic.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein said subject isa human subject.
 7. The method of claim 6, wherein said subject is apediatric subject, an adult subject, an elderly subject, or apost-menopausal woman.
 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said subjecthas a calcium deficiency.
 9. The method of claim 1, wherein saidprebiotic composition is administered each day for a predeterminednumber of days.
 10. The method of claim 9, wherein said predeterminednumber of days is 14, 30, or 35 days.
 11. The method of claim 9, whereinsaid method comprises administering a lower dosage of GOS on the firstday of administration than the last day of administration.
 12. Themethod of claim 9, wherein said method comprises administering the samedosage of GOS on the first day of administration as on the last day ofadministration.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said one or moresymptoms comprise flatulence, heartburn, upset stomach, nausea,bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain, cramping, or vomiting.
 14. Apharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage form of GOS comprising one ormore dosing units, each of said dosing units comprising 0.1 to 2 g of aGOS composition wherein said GOS composition is a liquid encapsulated ina gelatin capsule.
 15. The pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage formof claim 14, wherein said gelatin capsule is size 000, 00, 0, 1, 2, 3,4, or
 5. 16. The pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage form of claim14, wherein said GOS composition comprises at least about 80% GOS byweight.
 17. The pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage form of claim14, wherein said GOS composition comprises at least about 95% GOS byweight.
 18. The pharmaceutically acceptable oral dosage form of claim14, wherein said GOS composition does not comprise a probiotic.
 19. Theoral dosage form of claim 14, wherein said gelatin capsule furthercomprises an enteric coating.
 20. A method of treating lactoseintolerance in a subject experiencing one or more symptoms of lactoseintolerance comprising: a. administering a hydrogen breath test (HBT) tosaid subject; b. diagnosing said subject as having or not having lactoseintolerance based upon a HBT result; and, c. administering a prebioticcomposition to said subject diagnosed as having lactose intolerancebased upon said HBT results, wherein said prebiotic compositioncomprises GOS.
 21. The method of claim 20, wherein said HBT result is anincrease in breath hydrogen of greater than 12 ppm.
 22. The method ofclaim 20, wherein said HBT result is an increase in breath hydrogen ofgreater than 15 ppm.
 23. The method of claim 20, wherein said HBT resultis an increase in breath hydrogen of greater than 20 ppm.
 24. The methodof claim 20, further comprising administering a lactose intolerancediagnostic questionnaire to said subject and diagnosing said subject ashaving or not having lactose intolerance based upon said HBT result anda lactose intolerance diagnostic questionnaire result.
 25. The method ofclaim 20 wherein at least about 95% of the total weight of saidcomposition is GOS.
 26. The method of claim 20, wherein said compositiondoes not comprise a probiotic.
 27. The method of claim 20, wherein saidcomposition is provided in a dosing unit.
 28. The method of claim 20,wherein said subject is a human subject.
 29. The method of claim 20,wherein said subject has a calcium deficiency.
 30. The method of claim20, wherein said prebiotic composition is administered each day for apredetermined number of days.
 31. The method of claim 20, wherein saidpredetermined number of days is 14, 30, or 35 days.
 32. The method ofclaim 20, wherein said one or more symptoms comprise flatulence,heartburn, upset stomach, nausea, bloating, diarrhea, abdominal pain,cramping, or vomiting.